The 600-year-old Serlung Pelkar Chhoeling Monastery in Dawakha, Paro was founded by Drupthop Thangthong Gyalpo (1361-1485) when he built iron bridges for the people in this area. In the meantime, the people living in a place high up on the mountain had to deal with strong winds and storms that caused harm to the people and destroyed crops. The people blamed the infamous lakes in the area. There were two lakes, Yum and Syem (Mother and Daughter), which were believed to be the cause of all the destruction inflicted on the people. In Bhutan, the Bhutanese believe that all living things, including nature, have spirits and are alive within them. For example, the mountains in Bhutan are believed to be the abode of mountain gods, or at least to house spirits. Therefore, people decided to drive away the destructive spirits of the lakes by throwing the dead bodies of people and animals into the lake. The mother lake left its present location for the Dagala region and became known as Dagala Yumtsho, while the daughter lake did not make it further than present-day Selung Goemba. She had problems with her leg. You can still see the remains of the lakes where they rested. The mother advised the daughter to stay in this place and serve as the protector of the Dharma of Drupthop Thangtong Gyalpo in Selung Goemba, and left her her revered Sergi Alung (hook), making the place known as Serlung Goemba. The people of this place considered it auspicious that a lake had formed near a monastery founded by the famous Drupthop Thangtong Gyalpo. The villagers believed that the lake would eliminate famine and bring prosperity to the village, and held a festive sacrifice to ask the spirit of the lake to bless them with protection. The ritual takes place in Selung Goemba once every three years. There is no specific day or month set for its performance, but depends mainly on the availability of the Pawo. The Goemba is a common religious place of worship for the people of Khamdi and Sali and some other neighboring villages.

Agriculture is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock and over centuries, rise in agricultural has contributed in the growth civilization. Early people have developed and improved varieties of plants and till date the practice is considered to be the important aspect of Bhutanese livelihood. It is one of the sources of income as over69% of the population here, directly depends on it for their livelihood (MoAF, 2011). In 2011, agriculture sector accounted for about 17.7% of the total GDP of the country (RNR Statistics, 2012) Asham (Maize) plays a critical role in the entire life of given economy and is a pre-dominant cereal crop for the eastern part of the Bhutan for many years contributing to more than half of total maize production in the country. Asham cultivation was one of the main cereal as well as cash crops that supported and supports lively hood for major households in the part of the country. To these days, the practice and culture of maize cultivation is one of the main live hood and sources of income. Most communities in the eastern part of the country depend on cultivation of Asham to produce following products: •\tKharang- grits, grind maize used as staple food •\tAsham me-gogni- roasted corn •\tAsham bokpi- corn flour •\tTengma- roasted and pounded maize •\tAsham mu-nang- a local term for popcorn •\tZhu- brewed alcohol Apart from above products, asham is also used as cereals for bartering during the olden days to exchange with wooden and bamboo products produced from other parts of the Dzongkhags. Moreover people also used to exchange with rice, chili, meat and dairy products within or outside the community. People used to offer asham, kharang and bokpi to monks and gomchen(great meditation masters) as they visit begging for cash and kind. Asham and its product were also used during the religious rituals at households. Crafting of Torma (Sacrificial ritual cakes) and Sur (Smoke offering) during the rituals were done by using corn flour. There has been lots of transformation in the culture, practice and process in cultivation maize in the region due to introduction of hybrid seeds, improve in tools and technologies used compared to old and traditional ways of cultivation.

The practice of propitiation and timely offering (Choed-pa means "offering") of food and drink to the deities has long been found in the history of the people of Bhutan. Although most of these ancient practices have not been put into words, many of these sacrificial rituals to nature gods and deities are still practiced in most parts of Bhutan. These beliefs remain strong as people seek protection from evil spirits, sickness, during disease and famine, and wish for blessings and prosperity. The sacrificial ceremony is held annually on the 15th day of the first month of the Bhutanese lunar calendar. The 15th day is considered the most auspicious day of the month. Depending on time availability, the ceremony can also be held on the 10th day of the first month, but the 15th is the preferred day. The Choedpa ceremony takes place on the mountain top where Jela Dzong stands at an altitude of about 3000 meters above sea level. Jela Dzong (fortress) was built in ancient times to defend enemies. Therefore, the whole area is called Jela Dzong. The fortress is under the care of the government and has been converted into a Lhakhang (temple) where a Lam (teacher) has been appointed and some monks study and live under him. There are no human settlements except for the nomads and yak herders who camp nearby and graze their yaks in the meadow. It takes about 5 hours on foot to reach Jela Dzong from the nearest village downhill. In earlier times, this sacrificial ceremony was important for the well-being of the family and the entire household. With the passage of time, this custom has lost its significance. Nowadays, only a handful of people make the effort to pack their belongings and head up the mountain. Changing times have meant that the 5-hour journey to Jela Dzong is considered too arduous and time-consuming. Instead, some people have considered simplifying the ceremony and going to a nearby mountain peak, only an hour and a half away, to perform the ceremony. It is debatable whether this will work, but according to Ap Dorji, villagers seem to admit that it has worked so far. Still, it is obvious that many things have changed and the custom is losing its meaning.

As Bhutan remained under self-imposed isolation for several centuries, modern economic development made its way to this country very much later than in many other countries. Agriculture is still the main source of livelihood for a large majority of the population. More than sixty percent of the people still live in rural villages tilling their land and raising livestock. Farmers generally use traditional methods of farming and homemade tools, but increasing numbers are beginning to use modern technology appropriate to their individual farming needs. Bhutanese farmers grow nine basic varieties of cereal grains – wheat, barley, paddy, maize, bitter buckwheat, sweet buckwheat, pulse, foxtail millet, and finger millet. These are grown at different places and times, depending upon the altitude and season. The most dominant crop is rice followed by maize and wheat. Due to the introduction of new farming technologies and growth in market opportunities, farmers are venturing into commercial crops such as oranges, apples, cardamoms and potatoes. Commercial gardening of chilly, cabbage, cauliflower, tomato, and asparagus is also undertaken nowadays. Traditionally, when farming works are due, a suitable day is sought from the village astrologer for ploughing and sowing of seeds. Days coinciding with animal signs such as Ox, Tiger, and Sheep are avoided when oxen are used in the fields. Similarly, days bearing the signs of Rat, Rooster, and Pig are avoided for sowing seeds. Nevertheless, farmers generally stick to the throejor\u0002throechen and throechung, which are combinations of two of the five elements according to astrology. Every farmer aspires for a good harvest in any season. Therefore, the very first step is to gather stubble and twigs, which are then burnt in the field. Thereafter, manure is collected from cowsheds and scattered in the fields. The farmlands are ploughed with the help of a pair of male animals – oxen or yaks yoked together. In the eastern region, two men are required to guide the oxen with one at the yoke and the other holding the plough. In order to encourage the animals, some farmers sing inspirational songs called Lang ke or Lang kor. Please come, my Dongkar, Listen, with your golden ear, Concentrate your mind. Please come, my Yangcha, Even if my voice is not soft as wool, Prove that you are as strong as iron. Come on, my Dongkar, The breakfast that we have eaten this morning, It is vanishing as the sun passes the midpoint. Come on, my Yangcha, Without having worked ahead, It is hard to leave the results behind. Come; turn on, my Dongkar, The time has come for the sun to set behind the mountains, You have to complete one more round of work. Come; turn on, my Yangcha, After successful completion of one more round, The repressing yoke will be removed from your neck. Maize is the first crop to be sowed, right after the New Year celebrations. It is followed by paddy and other crops depending upon the elevation of the land. The maize seeds are thrown directly into the hollows of the soil as the ploughing is in progress. Unlike other crops, rice involves several cycles of attention and is the most tedious of all crops for cultivation, requiring constant irrigation and frequent weeding. Seeds are sown in separate nurseries in early spring and seedlings are transplanted during the monsoon season. Both maize and rice are harvested between September and October. While harvesting the paddy, a beautiful song seeking high production is sung as follows: Please shower, shower with prosperity! The white-headed mother of prosperity, Please bring productivity and your first offering. Please shower, shower with prosperity! The yellow-headed mother of prosperity, Please bring productivity and your first offering. Please shower, shower with prosperity! The red-headed mother of prosperity, Please bring productivity and your first offering. Please shower, shower with prosperity! The green-headed mother of prosperity, Please bring productivity and your first offering.

Gunduri is a straw mat, an agricultural byproduct consisting of the dry stalks of cereal plants after the grain and chaff have been removed. The temporary biodegradable products are made of natural material from the cereal crops such as barley, maize, oats, rice, rye, and wheat. It is used in villages and is locally made by the woman who has the skill to put it in a place. Whereas it is made of rice straw mostly in Tsirang, part of Dagana, Sarpang, and Samtse Dzongkhags. The making of the straw mats is carried out during the autumn season after the harvest of rice. It is also known as Gunduri in Lhotshamkha. The Gunduri making in Semjong gewog under Tsirang dzongkhag is still one of the unique cultures and traditions they have been practicing for so long. They prefer to use Gunduri because of their culture and tradition which have been preserved for so long. Mr. Singh Bir Pradhan, 81 years old from upper Dzomling shared that they had used the Gunduri mat during the involvement of many people like marriage ceremonies, funeral rites, and when there was a celebration in the village. Due to the change in time, the practice of making Gunduri is declining because of available cheap carpets in the market. People prefer to use the Gunduri mat because of its comfortableness and convenient in many ways but it takes time, patience and lots of practice. These days people hardly practice the Gunduri making in Semjong gewog but however they still use the Gunduri mat that are woven aforetime which are in a good condition.

The Ramman is a form of traditional ritual theatre celebrated every year in the courtyard of the temple of Bhumiyal Devta situated in Saloor Dungra Village in Painkhanda valley of Chamoli district, Uttarakhand, India. The village deity of Saloor Dungra is Bhumichetrapal, also known as Bhumiyal Devta. Historical accounts of the preexisting tradition are available since 1911. In the Hindu month, Baisakh (April-May), on the sankranti day, Bhumiyal Devta comes out in a procession to the temple. On the second day of the festival, people offer hariyali (sprouted barley plants), to the deity, which has ecological reference. Every day, the Bhumiyal Devta takes a round of the village. The main components of the masked performance are as follows: ▶Celestial Aspect -Dance of Ganesh-Kalinki (Parvati) -The dance of Sun God: Enactment of creation-myth and birth of Brahma and Ganesh. -Bur Deva (Narad): Rani-Radhika dance. -Bur Deva Raja dances along with Gopi Chand (Sri Krishna) and Rani Radhika (Gopis) on different beats and gestures. ▶Temporal Mwar-Mwarin Dance: The dance shows the travails of the buffalo herders in their hazardous journey through the jungle to the hills. A tiger is shown attacking and injuring the Mwar. Baniya-Baniyain Nritya (Dance of the Trader-Couple): It shows hardships of the common people. The episode shows robbers attacking and looting the merchant couple. ▶Performance The performance then shifts towards the enactment of the local Ramkatha, the core Rama story. Episodes from Rama’s life are sung. The dance is performed on 18 different beats yielding a total 324 beats and steps. The episodes enacted and sung are: -Ram-Lakshman’s visit to Janakpur -Sita’s Swyamwar -Hanuman Milan (Meeting with Hanuman) -Swarna Mrig Vadh (killing of the Golden deer) -Sita Haran (Abduction of Sita) -Lanka Dahan (Burning of Lanka) -Raj Tilak (Coronation ) There are other dances and episodes like Maal Nritya, Koorjogi and Narsingh Pattar Nritya. ▶Historical Aspect -Maal Nritya: Rama story is followed by the historical battle between the Gurkhas of Nepal and the local Garhwalis. Two dancers carrying weapons move on to the central performing arena, enacting a battle scene. They are comical in looks, attire and gestures. -Maal artists are four in number, two red and two white, respectively representing the Gorkhas and the Garhwalis. It is mandatory to have a red Maal from the Kunwar caste of the Rot hamlet, Saloor village, as it is believed that this hamlet supported the Gorkhas. The other three are selected by the Gram Panchas. One white Maal each is chosen from the twin villages and the remaining red Maal comes from village Dungra. This performance manifests past valour and bravery, sums up the total religious and aesthetic experience of the community, and renegotiates its identity and place in the bigger cosmic drama every year. ▶Ecological Aspect Ramman is an agrarian festival in celebration of ties between man, nature and the divine. Maize and barley seeds, sprouted in ritual pots, are offered to Bhumiyal Devta who, in turn, promises prosperity to all, including agricultural yield and forest produce. -Koorjogi: This episode is of immense ecological relevance. Various harmful weeds (koor) in the village fields are pulled out by Koorjogi (character who carries a sack full of these weeds). One of the most joyous moments in the series is throwing thorny weeds on each other, creating a mayhem of goodwill and merriment, establishing a sense of community and harmony. -Make-up of Artists: The Ramman performance involves use of masks and make-up using sheep’s wool, honey, vermilion, wheat flour, oil, turmeric, soot and locally grown plants and vegetables. -Masks are made from wood of local trees and this involves lengthy rituals. ▶Musical Aspect -Drumming Tradition: The performance revolves around playing of drums by Das drummers from the lowest caste, whose status is elevated during the performance. -Jagar Tradition: Jagaris or Bhallas of Rajput caste are professional bards and sing oral epics and legends (Jagars). The festival ends with a feast where the prasada of the deity is distributed as sacrament.

India 2009

‘Bozo’ is a favorite beverage of the Kyrgyz. Usually, it is made from ground wheat, barley or corn. The basis of bozo is ‘ugut’ (malt). It is made from wheat, sometimes from a mixture of wheat with barley or millet. Preparation of bozo contains three stages. Firstly, ground cereal is poured with warm water and added some leaven. Then it is left to ferment in a warm place for a day. The second stage contains the process of cooking the fermented mass adding boiling water, constantly stirring during one or two hours. In the last stage, ‘ugut’, a bit of flour and leaven is added to the cooled mass, which is left in a warm place for a day. After the fermentation, the mass is diluted with water and filtered. ‘Jarma’ is an ancient beverage drank as a refreshing drink. It is thick and calorie-rich so that it is as good as food. People take it with them when going out to work on the fields. It is easy to make and both adults and children drink it with pleasure. Jarma is made out of talkan. Talkan is coarsely grinded barley or wheat. Barley or wheat is fried beforehand. After boiling enough talkan in water, jarma is cooled down. Then airan or grinded kurut is added. Jarma is made all year around either as a cold or hot dish or as a refreshing beverage. ‘Maksym’ is a traditional thick beverage, which is consumed in spring and summer seasons. It is very good for quenching thirst. It is also used as food, it is easy to make and nutritious. Farmers take it with them when going out to work in the fields. First, talkan is fried in a sheep fat until it turns golden-brown. The water is poured and boiled. Then, culture is added and is left for 7-8 hours for fermentation.