Chinese calligraphy is an artistic practice that, while fulfilling the practical function of information exchange through writing Chinese characters with brushes, ink, and paper as the main tools and materials, conveys human contemplation of nature, society and life and thus reflects the unique character, spirit, temperament, interest, and philosophy of the Chinese people through special graphic symbols and writing rhythms. Along with the appearance and evolution of Chinese characters, Chinese calligraphy has developed for more than 3,000 years and become a symbol of Chinese culture. In its development, calligraphy has developed a complete set of theories and skills. The art has enjoyed orderly propagation and continuous development through personal instruction and documented records, and presented distinct features in correspondence the change of time and alteration of tools and materials. Chinese history has produced a large number of prestigious calligraphers, such as Wang Xizhi (303-361 A.D.), Yan Zhenqing (709-785 A.D.), and Su Shi (1037-1101 A.D.).

China 2009

Blacksmith business is one of the oldest folk crafts in Uzbekistan. For many centuries, the country has been one of the largest centers of craft production, including the art of metalworking. In Bukhara, Samarkand, Tashkent, Kokand, Margilan and other places there are unique workshops where knowledge is transferred from generation to generation, from master to student. Thus, ancient traditions are preserved, and the family of hereditary masters continues. At the blacksmith’s shop, the oven, qura, supa, ura, chupkunda; and instruments sandons, bosqon, hammers, bulls, eaves, mills, and others are used. Hammersmiths make various things such as hoes, mowers, tesha and other household items, doors, gratings etc.

The extraction and production of Pangtse Makhu were effectively practiced from the 1970s until 1990s, and have remained to be a part of an income source and source of oil until now to the people of Toed-Wang Gewog (block) under Punakha Dzongkhag (district). “As the plant is highly adaptable and grows naturally on barren, degraded land and dry areas but for better yield, the plant is also grown on the terraces,” said the villagers. But today it is said and observed by the grandparents in the community that because of the country’s speed of development and with advancements in technology and intellectual, the tradition of extracting Pangtse Makhu in the community has significantly declined over time due to the availability of cheaper imported refined oils in the markets. It is also said that during the olden days with abundant Pangtse Shing and with more extractors, people did not have to buy oil rather oil extracted from Toed-wang gewog was sent throughout the region. However, with an increased number of youths going to school and colleges during the harvesting and production time, and also with less market value over more hardships, it has been a challenge for the few people maintaining this practice in the locality to share the value to the younger generation. Today, the community is on verge of losing the tradition of extracting Pangtse oil because of its labor-intensive nature with a tedious and time-consuming procedure. And also, it’s because of people’s choice for the cheaper imported oil over the one that has been naturally extracted and produced which has a slightly higher price in the market. Despite the challenge, the local producers are looking forward to a government intervention in the conservation of the losing tradition.

Gold and silver smithy or metal carving had flourished in the country for a long time as evident from the ornaments worn by women and religious artefacts in monasteries and temples. This art is still being practiced and transmitted. It is a highly specialized art form. A special class of craftsmen called Troe-ko make jewelry of gold and silver and other items such as swords, boxes, teapots, and various ornaments of silver, often thinly plated with gold. Traditional symbols such as the dragon and other beautiful motifs are engraved on the objects. Silverwork is also found on the pillars of temples, altar tables, jewelry and other religious items. Using precious stones and metals such as coral, turquoise, silver and gold, these artisans make brooches, necklaces, bracelets, earrings, rings, amulets with religious content, traditional vessels (Chaka and Trimi) for carrying the much-chewed beetle nut, ritual objects and much more.

Statues, stupas and other religious structures are common sights in Bhutan. They are gorgeous to look at but without proper zung or inner relics, they have no spiritual values. If the statue is not filled in with the zung, it is believed that malevolent spirits get into the statue and cause harm to people. Therefore, installing zung in these structures is very important. With the installation of zung, the religious structure or statues become a living entity capable of bestowing blessings. Zung bestow them with spiritual importance and sacredness, hence inserting zung is tantamount to installing a soul in the body. Ideally, zung offering should be done by an ordained monk who does not eat meat, onion, garlic, drink alcohol, smoke or chew tobacco and has taken the vow of celibacy, but such a person is very rare to find in this modern era. Zung consists of scriptures in the form of mantras or prayers, and precious objects, supported by a sogshing (life wood) in the centre. The sogshing must be a fruit bearing tree with fragrant leaves such as juniper, cypress or sandalwood. It is cut into four sides tapering towards the tip while its base is kept in vajra shape. The whole sogshing is painted red and mantras are inscribed on the four sides in gold. The size of the sogshing depends on the height of the statue or stupa. Mantra rolls are an important component in filling the religious objects. Thus, Holy Scriptures or mantras are printed and rolled but each roll is marked to ensure the right order of the scripts for installation, as Bhutanese believe that installing scriptures upside down may cause more harm than good. Various other important components such as body, speech, and mind relics of great lamas, precious metals and a small statue (terma) are placed around the sogshing, which is then wrapped in silk brocade. After fitting the sogshing, rolls of mantras printed on papers and stuffed with sandalwood powders along with incense are arranged around it. The stuffed items will keep the zung items firmly in their respective positions. When every possible space is completely filled, the base is sealed with a bronze sheet. Finally, a consecration ceremony is performed to make the object fit for worship and refuge.

Jimzo is a traditional art of forming religious images. Jim means "clay" and Zo means "art", literally "clay art". In Bhutan, it can be traced back to the 7th century, to the time of Tibetan King Songtsen Gampo (569–649?), who is believed to have built 108 Lhakhangs (temples), under which the pioneering Buddhist temples such as Kichu and Jampa Lhakhangs were built. Various clay paintings from different centuries, beginning with the time of Guru Rinpoche, attest to the existence of clay art in Bhutan much earlier. In the time of Terton Pema Lingpa (1450-1521), this art became popular. Towards the end of the 17th century, the art was codified and included by the fourth Desi (temporary ruler) Gyalse Tenzin Rabgye (1638–1696), as one of the thirteen arts and crafts of Bhutan. Later, at the time of Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyal (1594-1651) in the 17th century, a very skilled sculptor named Trulku Dzing was invited to Bhutan. Trulku Dzing erected numerous clay figures in Punakha and Wangduephodrang Dzong. The art was later codified and included as one of the thirteen traditional arts and crafts of Bhutan by the 4th Druk Desi (temporary ruler) Gyalse Tenzin Rabgye in the late 17th century. Since then the art of sculpting has been maintained and passed from teacher to students over many generations until today. Bhutanese jim zop (sculptors) are known for the quality and intricacy of creating delicate clay sculptures. They practice sculpting as a pious act since it is based on the iconographic principles of Buddhist art. It is very important to adhere to the rules that prescribe the precise measurement of the body structure in relation to the limbs, postures, eyes, ears, fingers and nose and the body tints, garments and ornaments. a. Religious Statues and Ritual Objects: Sculptors make clay statues, ritual objects and tsha tsha (miniature clay stupa) and clay masks worn during festivals. Numbers of exceedingly fine and intricate religious sculptures and ritual objects made of clay can be seen in every temple, monastery, and the dzongs of Bhutan. These clay sculptures vary in sizes, varying from tiny statues to over twenty feet. There are clay sculptures of the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, various deities, gods, goddesses and prominent religious figures which depict the foundation of faith, worship and reverence for the Buddhists. b. Types of Clay used in Sculpting: Clay is the basic material for making sculptures. A special kind of clay can be found deposited in small quantities between mud and gravels usually in marshy areas. Sculptors use the best quality clay as the images and objects they make must stand against the change of weather for generations. Clay is processed into three different forms; tsa dam, kong dam, and jim dam. Each one is used for a specific purpose. Tsa dam is made by mixing clay powder with daesho (paper made from daphne plants) in the ratio of 7:3. If paper is not available, pulps made from the raw bark of daphne plant are used as substitute. This mixture prevents the mud from disintegrating when dried. Tsa dam is used for moulding the basic structure of the statue. Kong dam is prepared in the same way as tsa dam, but by adding more water to make the clay relatively thinner and softer. Kong dam is applied over the basic structure moulded from tsa dam to give proper shape to the statue. Generally the proprietor adds any or all of the seven precious substances (gold, silver, and turquoise, and coral, pearl, bronze and any other precious stones) to tsa dam and kong dam in order to increase the aura of the statue. Jim dam is applied as the final and finishing touch to the statue. To prepare jin dam; the clay powder is mixed with water and then stirred thoroughly until it turns into a thin paste. It is then filtered with the help of a thin cloth. The thin filtered paste is collected in a utensil and then placed on fire until the water component is evaporated. What is left in the pot is a very fine powder. This powder is then mixed with daphne papier mache to give it the binding strength which prevents the clay from cracking. This mixture is again mixed with water and stirred and applied to give the final touches to the statue. c. Process of Clay Sculpting: Clay sculpting process starts with the measurement of the space available where the statue will be kept later, or the size required by the owner/sponsor. Accordingly, the basic structural frame is made by using copper wires for smaller statues, iron or steel rods for bigger statues as support. Steel rods are wrapped with copper wire to add the value of the object. Gold and silver wires are considered the best to make the basic frame. The frame is added with tsa dam while the internal part is left hollow for zung to be inserted later. When the tsa dam on the structure dries perfectly, kong dam is applied over it to give all the external physical features, forms and the attires. The parts such as hands and head are made separately and attached later to the body for smaller statues, though the head of bigger statues are made directly with the statue. The sculptor must ensure that the parts made separately are proportionate to the whole structure. Any part of the statue that is not proportionate to the whole body is considered an impious act of the sculptor and therefore must be avoided at all cost. Sculpting is a tedious job, requiring the sculptor to apply the wooden chisel again and again to fill any gaps or remove the lumps over and over again. The statues are left for a long time to allow the clay to dry naturally, and to develop minor cracks which are also left unrepaired to allow air to pass for rapid drying. When no more cracks appear, it means the clay has dried up completely. The cracks are then repaired with tsa dam by mixing with glue. Once this is done, the sculptures are ready for final layers of finishing using jin dam. At this stage the sculpture is finally ready for zung (the inner relic). Learners have to undergo rigorous training for several years under a master sculptor known as Jimzo lopoen. As sculpting for religious purpose is considered a spiritual act, sculptors have to choose the most auspicious day and time to start a project. Once completed, an expert (usually a monk) will insert a zung shing or sog shing (a strut inside the statue as its backbone) and zung consisting of written mantras and other precious substances. Then the statue is painted using appropriate colours. Upon completion of all these steps, a drub or rabney ceremony is conducted by an accomplished lama. The painters and sculptors are highly regarded for their profession.

Bhutanese paintings are quintessential of the arts and crafts tradition known as Lhazo. Bhutanese paintings are religious in their orientation and are not created in isolation. The traditional painters are called Lhadrips (one who makes drawings of lha - higher beings). A lhadrip paints and decorates a new house with traditional symbols, paint a chosham (an altar) or a Thangka or Thongdroel with the images of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas and deities with strict adherence to the already accepted norms. Another striking feature of Bhutanese paintings is anonymity. Bhutanese lhadrips would never sign on their works. It is, however, the names of the patrons who are mentioned on the paintings, if mentioned at all. By the same token, it is believed that the traditional painters gain lots of merits by the act of painting these religious arts. These paintings are aimed at providing spiritual lessons to the viewers and therefore assume meditative functions. The painters use naturally pigmented soils that are obtained from different parts of the country. The yellow colours are found in the districts of Gasa and Bumthang while the red colour is found in Wamrong under Trashigang District, black soil comes from Phuentsholing and Trashigang and white soil from Paro. Lhadrip apprentices learn to paint a wide range of images including simple motifs like the eight lucky signs and gradually move on to more complex subjects such as thangkas – large painting scrolls. Thangkas are complex because they depict various Buddhas and Bodhisattvas and the deities and saints with their follower and appropriate backgrounds. They are often painted on canvas and then stitched in silk frames. Traditional paintings are classified into four categories: a. Mural Painting: The mural painting is called debri.The inside walls of the temples are usually filled with mural paintings of different kinds. The surfaces of the inside walls are first smoothened and plastered with fine clay and then left to dry. Sometimes they use another technique by carefully laying a fine sheet of cotton cloth over the plastered walls which is not easily visible. The mural paintings vary from the images of Lord Buddha and Guru Rinpoche and their activities, bhavacakra (sidpa khorlo) or wheel of existence, varied icons of deities (lhatshog), adepts and saints. We also find the paintings of Mandala. These frescos are, therefore, strictly religious and strikingly beautiful. b. Statue Painting: Statues are either moulded from clay or cast out of bronze and metal. Once they are completed, then the lhadrips paint them using appropriate colour. The clay statues are painted all over while the metal statues are painted only on the face, often with gold. c. Scroll Painting: Scroll (thangka) paintings are different from mural paintings as they are painted on canvas for hanging on the walls. Scroll paintings can be kept folded in a safe place and unfolded and displayed on auspicious occasions. In order to make a thangka, the painter fixes a damp piece of canvas onto a wooden frame. Then a mixture of lime and gum is scrubbed on the surface. The surface is then polished and smoothed. The artist then draws a grid to guide him. When the colour is applied these lines disappear. A thangka is stitched with silk and brocade border of appropriate colours and has two frames fixed to the upper and lower borders to suspend and stretch. Thongdroel is a much larger version of a thangka. It is believed that merely seeing the painting can liberate sentient beings from samsara. Thus, it brings merit not only to the believers but for the painters as well. d. Wood Painting: Shing tshon (Shing means wood and tshon means colour painting) is done on the wooden structure. The outside walls of the temples, monasteries and farm houses are normally whitewashed while the wooden structures are painted with varied patterns and symbols often in accordance with different names accorded to different parts. These are bow, phana, pem, choetsi, norbu and bagam. Although the choice of colours may vary from one painter to another, often depending on the choice of the owner or main architect, the style of paintings are generally uniform. Paintings on the walls depict the traditional patterns like flowers, traditional symbols, eight lucky signs or Tashi Tagye (eight lucky signs), and the four lungta signs of Tag Seng Chung Druk (Tiger, Snow Lion, Garuda and Dragon). The painting of the Four Friends is popular on the walls. Some walls are also painted with phalluses. In order to paint on the wooden walls, the method called ‘pounce and spray’ is used. A painter uses an outline of a pattern or the design on a piece of paper to be painted on the walls. The outlines have pricked holes through which a powdered colour contained in a cloth is pressed to produce dotted pattern of the original patterns on the paper. The painter then traces these outlines to paint.

Hò khoan Singing of Lệ Thủy is a form of folk performance, taking place in spring and autumn, festivals, or to find friends of people in Le Thuy district, Quang Binh province. Hò khoan Singing of Lệ Thủy originated from production labor, when people needed to cooperate with each other to create strength to fight against harsh nature. Previously, Hò khoan Singing was performed in the "wood splitting" environment of lacquer workers, boatmen, transplanters, rice pounders, lime makers, earth pounders, house builders, singing to send off the deceased... and "hò khơi", "hò nậu xăm" of coastal residents. During the resistance years, Hò khoan Singing became revolutionary Ho. Today, the performance environment of Hò khoan Singing of Lệ Thủy is staged to effectively serve all socio-economic fields, criticize bad habits and is taught in schools. Hò khoan Singing of Lệ Thủy flexibly transforms in all environments but still retains the original melodies. Hò khoan Singing of Lệ Thủy is a type of composition, both performing and composing to fit the rhythmic time. Hò khoan Singing includes 9 melodies (9 melodies), including: mái chè, mái nện, lỉa trâu, mái ruỗi, mái nhài, mái ba, mái hò khơi, mái xắp và mái hò nậu xăm. The lyrics are poems, folk songs that are available, rustic, close to daily life. The main musical instruments are the Erhu and Mỏ, in addition, there can be rice pounding pestle, bamboo beak, sanh, stick, bronze tray, tea cup... used in singing sessions that are not competitions. Hò khoan Singing includes storytelling, narrative singing, cultural activities, call-and-response singing... people sing improvisation on the spot, with performers and accompanists, it is an indispensable form of community cultural activity with theatricality for Le Thuy people. The form of Hò khoan Singing of Lệ Thủy is mainly expressed by collective performance including two types: individual singing (hò) and collective singing (xô). The unique feature of Hò khoan Singing of Lệ Thủy is that when performing alone, they sing both the main and the con. With two or more people, one person sings the main song, many people sing the con songs, expressing all kinds of topics such as: singing to compete, singing to tease, and singing to guess. If the main song has a problem, the con song can immediately take over for the main song. Hò connects breath, strength, and intelligence flexibly and flexibly. Hò is used right during work: planting, plowing, pounding rice, building houses, etc. to encourage the working spirit of the people. In addition, Hò is also used to confide, respond or exchange love during traditional festivals. In 2017, the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism issued a decision to recognize Hò khoan Singing of Lệ Thủy as a National Intangible Cultural Heritage.

National Intangible Cultural Heritage, Republic of Korea The making of tteok, or Korean rice cakes, begins by steaming and pounding rice powder or flours made from other grains. Grain powders can be boiled or grilled to make tteok as well. There is a time-old tradition in Korea of making and sharing a variety of types of rice cakes on occasions that mark important moments in life, such as the 100th day after birth, first birthdays, weddings, funerals, and death anniversaries, as well as on seasonal and national holidays such as Seollal (Lunar New Year), Jeongwol Daeboreum (the fifteenth day of the first lunar month), Dano (the fifteenth day of the fifth lunar month), and Chuseok (the autumn harvest celebration). Rice cakes are one of the fundamental offerings at traditional rites held at community, familial, or individual levels. Contemporary Koreans still celebrate important events such as the opening of a business or a move to a new house with rice cakes, actively transmitting this long-standing practice of tteok making and sharing. Tteok making and sharing remains an important part of Korean culture. Tteok serve as a medium for promoting solidarity among community members and symbolize sharing and consideration for others. The rice cakes used for particular ceremonies carry unique cultural meanings. It is estimated that the rice cake-making tradition in Korea dates back to ancient times, given that there are Bronze and Iron Age archaeological sites that have produced tteok steamers. Various documents from the Three Kingdoms and Goryeo Dynasty periods detail the rice cake-making practices of the era. During the Joseon Dynasty, the grains and cooking methods involved in tteok making diversified thanks to advances in agriculture and cooking. The practice of presenting rice cakes on a ritual table became further popularized. Koreans of the Joseon era, particularly aristocrats and members of the royal family, enjoyed a broader range of rice cakes with improved flavors. Local tteok-making traditions reflect the agricultural characteristics of each region. For example, residents of Gangwon-do Province, known for its production of potatoes and corn, have long been making potato and corn tteok. Since the volcanic island of Jeju does not offer a favorable environment for rice cultivation, people on this southernmost island in Korea have focused on the production of other staples such as azuki beans, buckwheat, and millet. There is a variety of tteok from Jeju that use these as the main ingredients. Western foods that entered Korea after the opening of ports in the late 19th century changed traditional Korean culinary practices, including tteok-making traditions. The spread of commercial mills contributed to a separation between the producers of tteok and consumers. Despite these changes over time, the tradition of tteok making and sharing is still actively practiced across the country with wide local variations. The rice cake tradition has been designated as National Intangible Heritage based on the following considerations: It is a time-old tradition that has been transmitted across the Korean Peninsula; its long history is evidenced in written records that date as far back as to the Three Kingdoms period; it holds great potential for research in such disciplines as anthropology and food/nutrition; it has widespread and unique local variations; and it is practiced by a large and vibrant body of communities encompassing professional producers, research centers, and individual families. As rice cake making is practiced and enjoyed by the entire nation, this element has entered the national heritage list without recognizing any specific individuals or groups as official holders.

There are many musical instruments in Kyrgyzstan. The most iconic is the komuz, a three-stringed instrument resembling a small guitar. The body of the komuz is made of a whole piece of apricot or juniper wood, and sometimes of walnut or redwood. The tool head of the instrument has three wooden hitch-pins to which ends of strings are attached. The other ends of strings go to a bridge located on the table (deque) right in front of the tone-hole. Mutton guts were used as strings until recent times. The length of komuz is no longer than 85- 90 sm. Alternatives of the tuning of komuz is one its unique features, which are, in their turn, linked with a chosen type of musical composition. It is played by hands. Kyl-kiyak (or kiyak) is a stringed instrument with a bow. It is made of the same woods as the komuz. The instrument has two strings. It is a ladle-shaped instrument with an open upper half; its lower part is covered with camel leather. The length of kiyak is no longer than 70 sm. Untwisted horsehair is used for strings and bow. The fiddle for the bow is made of a specific plant, meadowsweet. Temir komuz is a mouth plucking instrument made of the metal only (temir - metallic). It is U-shaped and 6-7 centimeters long. Materials used to make it are brass, bronze or copper. The metal reed is fixed in the middle of a “plug” of the instrument, which is held by fingers of the right hand. When played, temir komuz is held near the mouth, which is a natural resonator. The whole performing apparatus, including lips, voice box, hands, and even lungs of the musician, is used in each tone. Chopo-choor (clay chor) is an ancient wind instrument. At present, it is spread in a ceramic form and has a regular oblong shape of 20 centimeters in length and 8 centimeters in width. Performer holds it with lips and fingers holes that are arranged along the length of the instrument. Dobulbash is a national percussion instrument, representing one-sided drum, which is covered by the leather. Height of its corpus, which is cut out of a juniper, is no longer than 60 centimeters; diameter of the membrane, which is covered by camel’s leather, is 25-30 centimeters. Notes from the drum are elicited by the tail point of the Kyrgyz whip (kamchy) or palms. The instrument sounds loudly, resonantly, and lastingly.

According to the traditional culture of the Ede community, every person from birth is worshiped and given a ring 7 times, from low to high, equivalent to each jar of wine. In which, the seventh jar worshiping ritual is the biggest ceremony and that person is considered mature and grown up. Here, many unique cultural features of the Ede people are expressed such as: worship of Giang, Mountain God, River God; worshiping the water wharf, worshiping the village head, wearing a ring; gong culture, cuisine, Chinh Krư dance; costumes, pants, shirts, hats; musical instruments such as flutes, horns; objects showing hunting strength such as knives, khiel, water gourds... Mpú toh kong - a sacred ritual, marking the community's recognition of an adult man. The time to hold the ritual is when a man reaches adulthood or later. The Initiation Ritual is organized by the family and is attended by all villagers to share the joy. On the first day, the person being offered goes to the village's water wharf in front of the witness of Yang (heaven) and the wharf god. This person will wash his hair and collect water in a gourd to bring back to perform the Yang worship ritual. They organize it for 5 consecutive days with the main offerings being rice wine and chicken. After the ritual, the shaman puts a bronze ring prepared by relatives on the hand of the person being offered to confirm that they are strong enough and can take on the work. During the ritual, gongs are performed along with traditional dances. The Ê đê people in Phu Yen believe that each person who can perform all these ceremonies will feel secure and the offerings will increase with age. The coming-of-age ceremony in particular as well as the life cycle rituals of the Ede people in Phu Yen demonstrate the connection between family and community. Through these rituals, customs, social practices, traditional costumes are maintained, gong culture is also practiced, creating unique cultural values of the Ede people in Phu Yen. With typical values, the Initiation Ritual of the Ê đê people in Phu Yen was recognized by the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism as a National Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2018.

The Gesar epic recounts the sacred deeds of the hero King Gesar, while unfolding a broad spectrum of oral genres, embedded hundreds of myth, legend, folktale, ballad, and proverb in narrative framework of “beads on a string,” namely “Gesar Epic Cycle,” demonstrating the sheer monumentality and vitality of verbal arts. So far we found the earliest manuscript is The Battle Between Vjang Regality and Gling Regality, which dated to the 14th century, while the earliest Mongolian woodblock version titled “Geser Khan, Guardian Lord of the Ten Directions,” was published in Beijing in 1716. As of today, there are over 120 different oral cantos on record. Not counting the texts in prose, the portions in verse alone are total over one million lines excluding different variations, indicating that the living oral epic continues to expand. As the creators and inheritors of the heroic song, the Tibetan singers and storytellers are traditionally classified in several ways by how they learn and master the epic. In oral performances, they invoke a flexible genre of bcad-lhug-spel-ma, namely ‘prosimetrum,’ by melding concisely worded prose with lyrical verse and over 80 melodies of music in responding to different contexts. They often use a variety of skills that include gestures, facial expressions, postures, and verbal sound effects to enhance the singing artistry. Among their meaningful props, the hat, bronze mirror, and costume are shaped in special ways to symbolize the traditional cosmology and aesthetics. In Mongolian tradition however, the epic singing is handed down professionally from master to apprentice. Performances usually feature musical accompaniment by stringed instruments called the “horse head fiddle” (morin khuur) and the “four stringed spiked fiddle” (hugur). The two major singing styles, “improvised melodic singing” (holboga) and “musical storytelling” (bensen ulger), are combined with oral narratives, which highlight vocal singing with deep, broad, and melodious sounds skilfully utilized as needed. Gesar epic performances play important roles in rites of passage, festival ceremonies and religious rituals in communities concerned. For instance, when a child is born, passages about King Gesar’s descending to the world are sung. The epic also reflects Tibet’s native Bon religion, in respect to beliefs, rituals, theology, divination, and so on. Moreover, the epic singing itself usually accompanies with specific ritualized practices, for example, smoke offering, meditation devoting, and spirit possessed. Hence, the epic is not only the dominant means for communicating with the hero, gods, ancestors, and members of society, but also the major entertainment in rural communities. The epic performers have acted as traditional educators who enable people understanding genealogy and history, astronomy and geography, zoology and botany, arts and crafts, medicine and treatment through their storytelling. Concrete narratives focusing on origins of nature and universe are incorporated in numerous episodes called Ode, such as Ode to Mountain, Ode to Sword, etc., revealing that the epic itself a continuum of experiential knowledge in response to their environment, their interaction with nature, universe, and history. As a Tibetan proverb goes, “On every person’s lips there is a canto of King Gesar.” It has been a constant inspiration for other art forms, including traditional forms such as Thangka painting, Tibetan opera, and Cham masked dance, as well as contemporary arts, which provides peoples and young generations a sense of cultural identity and historical continuity, while reflecting credit on the common cultural legacy, shared by generations, serves as a really all-embracing encyclopedia for the general public.

China 2009