"Xòe" means dancing with movements that symbolize human activities in ritual, culture, life and work. Xòe is performed at rituals, weddings, village festivals and community events. There are three main types of Xòe: ritual Xòe, circle Xòe, and presentational Xòe. Rituals Xòe and presentational Xòe are named after props used during particular dances, such as scarf Xòe, conical hat Xòe, fan Xòe, bamboo pole Xòe, music Xòe, stick Xòe, and flower Xòe. The most popular form is circle Xòe, wherein dancers form a circle in harmony with each other. The basic dance movements of Xòe include raising the hands up, opening the hands, lowering the hands, clasping the hands of the next person following rhythmic footsteps, slightly arching the chest and leaning backwards. The musical instruments of gourd lute (tính tẩu), shawm (kèn loa), mouth organ (khèn bè), drum, gong, cymbals, reed flute (pí pặp), bamboo-tube percussion (bẳng bu) and small round-shaped rattle are used to accompany dance, which follows rhythms in even meters (either 2/4 or 4/4). The typical melodies played on the instruments use the following intervals: major second, major and minor third, perfect fourth and perfect fifth. Dance movements, though simple, symbolize wishes for community members to have a good life and live in solidarity. Gentle dance moves blend with instrumental music, vocals, tight-fitting blouses, the jingling of silver jewelry hanging around the waists of Tai women and creates an art form imbued with the cultural identity of the Tai in the northwestern region of Viet Nam.

Viet Nam 2021

Wooden arch bridges are found in Fujian Province and Zhejiang Province, along China’s south-east coast. The traditional design and practices for building these bridges combine the use of wood, traditional architectural tools, craftsmanship, the core technologies of ‘beam-weaving’ and mortise and tenon joints, and an experienced woodworker’s understanding of different environments and the necessary structural mechanics.

China 2009

Sericulture and Silk Craftsmanship refers to the craftsmanship applied in traditional sericulture, silk dyeing and weaving process, which has been handed down from generation to generation, and relevant folk-customs derived thereby. China’s sericulture and silk craftsmanship boasts a history of 5000 years. The silk fragments, preliminary loom and potteries decorated with silkworm patterns excavated from sites dating 4000 years ago in the Taihu Lake area; demonstrate the time-honoured history of the sericulture and silk production in the region. Alongside the historical process, traditional manufacturing craftsmanship develops, and the main elements include: Mulberry planting: including cultivation of mulberry seedling, mulberry trimming, and various methods of engraftment; Silkworm production: including the selection, hybridization, and breeding of silkworm eggs, incubation, instruments for silkworm rearing, control of the temperature and humidity, and frame mounting methods; Silk reeling: including sorting and stripping of cocoons, ways for preserving the cocoons such as drying and salting, temperature control and process for boiling the cocoons, facilities and techniques for silk reeling, etc; Silk floss making: including techniques of water rinsing and tearing; Weaving tools: including various looms such as treadle looms, multi-shaft and multi-treadle patterning looms, lesser draw looms, greater draw looms, etc, and arrangement of heddle drafts and programming of patterns on draw looms; Design and weaving of fabrics: including the design and weaving of various structures and patterns, such as the Shuanglin silk damask which is calendared by stamp rocks, the Hang gauze with warps crossed, the Shu silk with warp-faced patterns, the Song-style silk in lampas weave, and Kesi woven in tapestry structures.

China 2009

This article will attempt to explain the ancient spirituality of the indigenous people of Fiji. Indigenous spirituality is important because it describes in totality the significance of the vanua, its worldview and vanua ethos. One must decolonize one’s thinking one is to understand the nature of itaukei spirituality and its ideology. Few research have unpackaged the significance of the vanua, nevertheless in its simplest form; the vanua comprises of seen and unseen elements. Nowadays, some itaukei have abandoned their traditional roles and its customs, some have prohibited the consumption of kava. But on the other hand, they are content with traditional itaukei artifacts and crafts. Others have indicated the irrelevance of culture yet when asked of their identity, without hesitation they state their place of origin. As there are traditional beliefs surrounding yaqona consumptions and traditional ceremonies, there are also traditional beliefs associated to traditional crafts and the ancestral guardians of the vanua. An example of a traditional craft with spiritual powers is the masi, also known as the isulu ni vanua (attire of the vanua), it links the physical and the spiritual world. It is worn by newlyweds to protect them from outside influence before the marriage is consummated, it is hung at homes as protection. (Hulkenburg J, 2009:67, 68). In the past, chiefs were regarded as representatives of gods on earth, they were considered sacred because of the sau and mana they possessed. The vanua is protected and respected because of the powers (sau and mana) the chiefs possessed. Yet, it was unreasonable for the people to continue to revere their chiefs when they cease to believe in their ancestor-gods (Thomason B, 1908:111). In Fiji, both Fijian history and Fijian traditional religion are hard to trace and attended with considerable difficulties. (Tivi. D. 2018:39)

Choe-lhag-ni is a Dzongkha (National Language) term for recitation of Buddhist scriptures especially Sanskrit Tripitaka at the various religious institutions or at the individual houses by either a monk, lay monks or by ourselves. Reading scripture is not only one a virtuous act (ge-wi-la) in accumulating merits to oneself but also helps other to arouse faith and aids in realizing the Buddhahood nature. It also a ritual (rim-dro) which helps in clearing and overcoming the obstacles and hindrance created by malicious spirits our daily activities and purifies our sins and defilements as well. While conducting Choe-lhag-ni program, the reader or the reciter is normally called Choe-neb and Choe-yon or Jin-dha for sponsors and patrons. Normally, such program can be conducted or organized as an annual program or carryout as and when there are sicknesses or can when an astrologer or a Spiritual masters either advices or make divination. This Dharma activity is always conducted in consultation with astrologer or a Spiritual masters seeking favourable elements that coincides Lha-za (spirit/vital-day) and if not possible, then on the Sog-za (life-force day) of either a sick person or the main family member. Performing on that particular day is said to be more effective and beneficial than conducting on other days which are called Gang-tong (neutral days). It is instructed and also believed not to conduct any virtuous activities be it the Recitation of Scriptures on Shey-za (bad days) as it causes harm than benefiting oneself and the patrons. As mentioned above, recitation of whole set of Tripitaka comprise two sets namely; Kan-guyr (direct word of Buddha) with 99-108 volumes and Ten-gyur (its commentaries) with 200-228 volumes is a great and enormous activity which one need huge number of readers as well as enough financial assets for an individual therefore, Institutions such as; Monastic body, government’s initiative or a joint private individuals can only organize such program intendent for wellbeing of sentient beings and particularly to the people of the country. In a rare case, out of interest, benefit the sentient beings or to enlighten oneself, an individual sometimes engage themselves in reading whole Kan-gyur volumes. Normally, Buddhist followers who want to clear the unforeseen obstacles, ward off illnesses, counterforce mishaps and sometimes as a routine basis reads mostly either 16 volumes of Skt. Prajnaparamita (Perfection of wisdom Sutras) and more often the single volume called Do-mang or Zung-due, where there is numerous collection of important Buddhist texts. Reciters or readers can be a person or more depending on the sponsor’s wish nevertheless, often if the recitation is not in haste or an emergency then, a person will stay in the sponsor’s house until the completion of the scripture. But, in case a ritual of a sick person and have limited time, the patron will invite numbers of Reciters as to complete the whole set in a day. The tradition of reading Buddhist scriptures for wellbeing and performing meritorious deeds had been common from the days of Buddha Shakyamuni in India. Having translated these teachings translated into Tibetan as early as 7th century and thereafter, introduced the tradition of reading them. Later in the 8th century, when King Thrisong Detsan (755-797 or 804) was having the Indian Dharma translated into Tibetan, the translator Ba Ratna Manju (?) was translating the greater Prajnaparamita Sutra. In his dream, he saw the entire land of Tibet was filled with the scripture of Prajnaparamita. This was an omen that there would be purely Mahayana practitioners born in the land of Tibet. When looking at the Prajna of hearing and contemplating in the mountainous land of Tibet, though training was done in all the schools, the experiences in Drub-jue sing-ta-gyed (Eight Chariots of Practice Lineage) in all the four Schools of Dharma Tradition are essentially Mahayana, and particularly the practice in the Sa-ngag (Secret Mantra) is as per the prediction of this omen. When Ba Ratna Manju offered this to the King, the king was pleased, brushed his hand over his head and gave great rewards for his services. It also shows the King’s deep faith in the Prajnaparamita Sutra. As much as his faith in this outstanding text among all the excellent teachings, it was King Thrisong Deutsan who had started the tradition of reading the scriptures in Tibet. It is said that the twelve volumes of Bum (hundred thousand stanza) scripts used to be read, from beginning to end every morning by dividing the scriptures among some 300 monks at Samye Monastery, Tibet. From Tibet, the tradition gradually flourished to the neighbouring countries including Bhutan which the people of Bhutan still practice the culture not only for remedial purpose but also to uphold the sacred doctrine and inculcating the faith to the future generations. However, the modernization couldn’t make much affect for this reading culture while it had somewhat impacted other ICH for its survival.

Generally, there is three wrathful tantric rituals; Nen (suppression), Seg (burn) and Phang (throw), exorcize and overcoming destructive evil spirits which the rituals reveal to be our own negative thoughts. In the Norbugang village community there are only a few households who organize the Se-nen ritual, which is performed along with the annual ritual called Lha-sey (lha gsol). Locally called Se-dam-pey, “burying the evil spirits,” the power of blessing of this annual ritual suppresses the source of ill-luck, famine, drought, diseases, quarrels, untimely deaths, and other unfavorable circumstances for the forthcoming year. It bestows peace and tranquility to the members of the family and the community as well. Se-dam-pey is performed according to the Lama Nor-jam liturgy text of the Pema Lingpa tradition, and it also includes local variations and worldly activities such as using household items to suppress the spirits and cheering with songs while dragging the Se to be buried. Locals believe this ritual was performed by Guru Padmasambhava while building the majestic Samye monastery in Lhasa, Tibet in the 8th century. Padmasambhava was invited by the Tibetan King Trisong Detsen to build Samye monastery after Vairocana, the eminent translator, could not control the evil activities at the construction site through compassionate acts. When Guru Padmasambhava arrived he used his unique accomplishment in tantric methods to summon the soul of the evil spirits and gather the country’s bad fortune which he suppressed into the ground and buried underneath the foundation of the building, concealed by vajra seal. Thereafter, the construction of the monastery proceeded without unfavourable circumstances or evil accidents. The final monastery was magnificent and could propagate the tantric teachings. Those teachings were brought to Bhutan by Guru Padmasambhava himself in the mid-eight century, and propagated by numerous eminent Vajra practitioners. Se-nen is revered as one of the most grand and powerful blessing rituals. In contemporary practice, the ritual is conducted by a community for the benefit of the people and is dedicated to all sentient beings. The power of the ritual is believed to suppress negativity and evil spells and leave blessings of peace, happiness and tranquillity. Prerequisite tools to prepare Se: -\tSe-ama or Se-lud (effigy representing the evil spirit), a painted human face on a boiled egg. -\tChong (gourd) to conceal the effigy. Although the original text requires a monkey skull to conceal the Se-ama, villagers use a gourd. -\tThe anchor is inserted through the knot and the rope is fastened to drag the Se ama into the Se-ga gang hole. -\tGo-tham shum (Egg shell to draw the face of the Se-ama -\tNab-sang (black cloth) for wrapping the gourd -\tKud-pa ney-nga (five colored thread) to bind -\tLa-cha (lacquer) for sealing -\tTek-pa (anchor) for clinching -\tRong-shong (rope) for pulling -\tThag-chey (all the traditional weaving tools) -\tNye-shing (pestle) -\tTok-tsi (small mortar and pestle) -\tGu-ga gang-che (drum handle) -\tRol-moi gang-che (cymbal handle) -\tSe-ga wang (hole to bury the Se-ama). The hole is usually dug just outside the threshold of a door. It is believed that the Se ama buried there will always remain underneath people’s feet.

Every year, during the months of September to April, the festivals of Tshechu, Rabney, Mani, Me-wang, Choed-pa, Due-choed, Yak-choed, Drub and Drub-chen are conducted simultaneously at various heritage sites; Dzongs (fortresses), monasteries and temples in Bhutan. This event transforms the sites into decorated places filled with offerings in the shrines and the surroundings filled with the resonance of religious musical instruments. It also brings together monks and local communities to jointly perform propitiation and affirmation rituals for the patron deities, along with the presentation of various sacred mask dances. People gather with most enchanting dresses to receive the blessings, say prayers and enjoy the much-awaited festive event. These sensational dances are generally called Gar-chham which derived from Buddhist terminology. The term gar-chham is composed of two verbs: gar and chham. The various gestures exhibited by the hands are called Gar, whereas the manner of the legs is called Chham. Gar\u0002chham is considered one of the means of liberation called thong-drol (liberation through seeing), as it helps to mature and realize the primordial Buddha-nature, and reminds one to engage in wholesome activities. In the 8th century, Guru Padmasambava, a great Buddhist tantric master introduced the Gar-chham concept in Bhutan and also into the Buddhist tradition in 737 AD. This concept was further popularized by Terton (The Treasurer Revealer) Pema Lingpa (1450-1521) by introducing many sacred mask dances, mostly performed by laymen (community members). These performances are called Boe-chham. Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyal (1594-1651) also placed more emphasis on the importance of these dances and included them in the curricula of the central monastery under the title Gar-thig-yang-sum (Mask Dances, Proportions Mandala Drawing and Ritual Intonation) to embed them in the realm of cultural heritage. The gar-chhams performed by monks are called Tsun-chham. Whether Tsun-chham or Boe-chham, gar-chhams are generally divided into three broad categories: Trul-pai zu-thrul gi gar-chham (manifested mask dances), Ka-ter dag-nang gi gar-chham (visualized mask dances), and Nam-thar zhi-chol gi gar-chham (biography-based mask dances). The subjugation of evil spirits and the liberation of their impure soul into the realm of Buddhahood through manifestation into pacifying, enriching, magnetizing, and wrathful forms are called trul-pai zu-thrul gi gar-chham. An example of this dance is the dance of the Eight Manifestations of Guru Padmasambava. Similarly, ka-ter dag-nang gi gar-chham are the profound performances of the guardian deities witnessed during the intermediate state of all the sentient beings. Some examples of such performances are the mask dances introduced by Terton Pema Lingpa. Finally, Nam-thar zhi-chol gi gar-chham are performances identical to plays based on well-known biographies. These performances convey the righteous human values that lead to a harmonious life. One of the most popular plays is the mask dance of the Intermediate State after death. Tsun-chham or Boe-chham can be easily distinguished from the masked dance costumes. The Tsun-chham usually wears a brocade tunic with long and wide sleeves, while the boe-chham performers wear more colorful garments made of brocade and silk. In addition to the central monastic institutions, there are indigenous gar-chhams in communities and private temples and monasteries throughout the country, where community members are usually involved in organizing the event, performing the mask dance and presenting folk dances to safeguard their tradition.

The Masked Dance of the Drametse community is a sacred dance performed during the Drametse festival in honor of Guru Padmasambhava, a Buddhist master. The dance performance also commemorates the founder of the Tegchok Namdroel Ogyen Choeling Monastery, Ani Choeten Zangmo; and venerable Khedurp Kuenga Gyeltshen (1505-/) who introduced the Masked Dance. These two are the eldest daughter and the fourth son respectively of the great treasure revealer, Terton Pema Lingpa (1450-1521). According to oral accounts, Drametse Ngacham was introduced in 1518, just three years before the death of Pema Lingpa. The name of the mask dance is derived from the Drametse village community, which falls within the Drametse gewog village block of Mongar Dzongkhag district in the eastern part of Bhutan. The term Ngacham refers to the dance implements held by performers, a hand-held circular flat drum and mallet. Tegchok Namdroel Ogyen Choeling Monastery was established in 1530. The three-day Drametse Tshechu festival takes place twice a year, organized by the monastery administration. The dancers include monks from the monastery as well as laymen. The origin of the mask dance, its characteristic choreography, masks, and costumes are specified in detail in the Kabum, Collected Works, of Pema Lingpa. Pema Lingpa have seven siblings and Sangdag is one of his sons who fathered Tenzin Chogyal and gave birth to Ani (Nun) Choeten Zangmo. Therefore, Ani Choeten Zangmo is the great grand daughter of Pema Lingpa. Though Ani Choeten Zangmo has no intention to indulge in the leading a family, she was forced to marry Yeshey Gyalpo, son of Sumthrang Choeje Sherab Drakpa. Driven by her destiny, she became renunciate and later established her permanent seat at Drametse where she recognized a place of peace and tranquility, Dra-me “No Obstructions” to her meditational practices at the summit of a Tse, small ridge. During her stay, her brother Kuenga Gyeltshen who is popularly known as Khedrub Kuenga Wangpo visited her. Kuenga Wangpo is highly revered by spiritual masters for his outstanding philosophical knowledge and realization of the true nature of mind, thus he was given a title of Khedrup, great and realized scholar. He encountered Guru Padmasambhava several times while in meditational states, and had visited Zangdok Pelri, the Copper Colored Mountain, spiritual realm of Guru Padmasambhava. While staying at Drametse, an auspicious event happened in his early morning meditation on the 17th day of the 8th month of Iron Male Tiger year 1530—while the Drametse Lhakhang Monastery was under construction. In this state, three khadroma celestial maidens with white complexion, decorated with colorful silken robes, ornaments and flower garlands, invited Kuenga Wangpo to Zangdok Pelri, saying they had come to take him for a tour of the realm’s palaces. He asked, “What should I take for the long journey?” The maiden responded, “While you are experiencing pure vision without doubts, come along with us.” They took him to the realm, and into a palace called Pema yoe ki Phodrang where Kuenga Wangpo saw King Indra Bhuti. Then the maidens took Kuenga Wangpo to the majestic palace of Zangdok Pelri, where he saw Guru Padmasambhava in a youthful form smiling and telling him “I am happy to see you here.” Instantly, Guru manifested to a Jalue, Rainbow Body, and thereupon Kuenga Wangpo was entertained by a splendid dance performed by many gods and goddesses transforming themselves into Dampa Rigja (Hundred Guardian Deities); forty-two peaceful forms, and others in wrathful appearance or in human form with various animals’ heads. All wore exquisite robes and a melodious sound of Choe-ngai dra, Buddhist teachings, resonated from the beating of their drums. It is also believed that the sound of the drum signifies victory over evils and celebrates joy as Buddha’s teachings flourish. Kuenga Wangpo was then told to introduce this dance in Jigten me-yul, the human realm, and that conducting the Masked Dance would liberate sentient beings. Coming out of this meditation, he jotted down the detailed choreography, masks, and costumes. The first introduction of this Masked Dance was at the sacred place of Drametse, thus giving it the name Drametse Ngacham. Due to the significance embedded in the dance, Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyal (1594-1651) who unified Bhutan as a country, the successive Je Khenpo spiritual leaders, as well as the Druk Desi temporary leaders—these spiritual masters and farsighted monarchs all propagated the Masked Dance across various monasteries and Dzong fortresses around the country.

Bhutan 2008

In Bhutan, there are several funeral practices as mentioned below: 1. Cremation of dead body at cremation ground or near one’s own house or on a river bank; 2. Sky burial, where the body is placed on a mountaintop for vultures to consume; 3. Water burial, where the body is immersed in the river and weighed down with heavy stones, or else cut into small pieces which are then scattered in the river; 4. Ground burial, where the body is buried underground; 5. Cave burial, where the body is deposited or hidden in caves on cliff faces; and 6. Surface burial, where the body is buried above the ground but covered with a structure made of stones and plaster. Cremation is the most common practice throughout the country. People prefer to cremate the body of a family member at a charnel ground, which has been prepared in accordance with the mandala of Buddha Akshobhya, and consecrated and blessed by highly attained lamas. The Hindus in the southern foothills cremate their dead on riverbanks so that the ashes and remaining debris are easily disposed of in the river. People in Merak and Sakteng communities (eastern Bhutan) dispose of dead bodies in the river or else bury them underground, while in places like Lingzhi (Western north) the dead bodies are left on a flat stone at a higher elevation for the vultures. In the Lhop community (Southern ethnic) , the dead body is buried above the surface of the ground within a stone mound which is plastered to make it air proof. Where cremation is practised, dead children below the age of eight are not allowed to be cremated. In olden days, they were either taken for sky burial on high mountaintops where vultures could feed on them, or they were buried in the river, weighed down with heavy stones to prevent them from being carried downstream. Sky burial is discouraged these days, however. In the event of a death, it is of utmost importance to seek divination from an astrologer before disposing of the body. Based on his ruling, various religious and charitable activities are organised in the name of the deceased. The main purpose of such activity is to accumulate enough merit to speed up his or her next rebirth as a human. Failing to accumulate enough merit will lead the deceased to be reborn into one of the four unhappy states of existence below the human plane. The virtuous person will either take rebirth as a human being, or be reborn in the pure realm of a Buddha field, from which they may travel the path towards enlightenment without falling back into the lower realms. The Buddhist tradition of funeral rite continues for 49 days after death. Aspiration prayers for the deceased are recited and rituals performed almost daily by those who can afford it, depending on the availability of monks or gomchens (lay-monks) and nuns. Those who cannot afford daily rituals, must at the very least initiate the droda zhi on the 4th day since the death, duen tshig on the 7th day, chuzhi on the 14th day and nyishu tsachi or gewa on the 21st day and finally zhipchu zhegu on the 49th day for performance of kangsha (prayer rituals) to the various forms of Compassionate Buddhas (mithrugpa and chenrezig), without fail. The family also conducts a ritual at the first anniversary after the passing away of the person, but for those who can afford it, the anniversary ritual can go on up to any number of years from the third year onwards. Relatives and intimate friends will try to attend all the rites including the annual rites, but people from the community will prefer to come mostly during the last two days (i.e. 21st and 49th days since the death). Following the funeral rite, a drigo (meaning, an effigy or a photograph of the deceased) is kept in the corner of the shrine room and offered meals, butter lamps, tshog (other forms of food), fruits and drinks every day, starting with the first day of passing away, until the 21st day rite, after which the drigo is removed. This is because the soul of the deceased is thought to hover around the body instead of leaving to seek the path of liberation. After cremation, any remaining fragments of bone are collected from the cremation site, then ground into powder, mixed with clean mud and made into tshatsha (mini stupas). These are laid in caves, on ledges of cliffs and at other sacred sites before the 49th day. One hundred and eight prayer flags printed with the Chenrezig mantra (om mani padme hum) are hoisted for the deceased, in order to benefit all sentient beings. Customarily, the six-syllable mani mantra would be sung melodiously with heartfelt devotion by those present at such rituals, but the practice is slowly diminishing, either because people nowadays do not know the tradition or because it is coming to be seen as obsolete. Even in remoter areas of the country, the tradition is no longer very strong.

One of the most entertaining mask dances is the Ging Tsholing Cham, where most of the audience, especially the children, are captivated by the intensifying drum beats and the fighting scene of the Cham ritual dance. The mask dance is also called Tro-ging, a local name, because it provides an entertaining presentation and performance for the audience. Ging represents the wrathful appearance of celestial beings, daka and dakinis; those dances are performed by laymen called Boecham pa. Whereas Tshogling is the emanation of guardian deities of Dharma protectors, including the Four Kings of the cardinal points and the Eight Classes of Gods and Goddesses; these roles are usually performed by Tsun cham pa monks. According to literary sources, the mask dance was introduced by Terton, treasure revealer, Pema Lingpa (1450-1521) after he saw the performance at Zangdok Pelri, the copper-colored mountain and spiritual realm of Guru Padmasambhava. Pema Lingpa, who was one of the fortunate incarnate beings of Guru Padmasambhava, met his enlightened master several times: when he predicted the future, when he gave him the list of treasures to be discovered in disguise, when he guided him to the sites to be discovered, and as he often invited him into his realm during meditation states and in dreams. On one such occasion, in the magnificent palace of Rang-jung Trulpai Phodrang, self-formed palace, he saw the Root Master manifesting in Ja-lue rainbow body or wisdom body, from which millions of his forms emerged, filling the three realms of the universe, which is beyond our imagination. Among the magical representations, the enlightened sages of India and Tibet sit in the right row and the scholars sit in the left row. In between them sit the 108 treasure discoverers, who are incarnations of Guru Padmasambhava and his 25 chief disciples. A cloud of gods and goddesses transformed into one hundred Dampa Rigja Protective Deities– forty-two peaceful forms, and fifty-eight in Ging wrathful appearance–they made various sensuous offerings, including the performance of Dorji-lugar Vajra Dances, dancing upon the air, rejoicing in the participation in the preaching of the coinage doctrine. Outside the entrance gate of the Four Directions are thousands of warriors from the Pho-jued and Mo-jued male and female classes of protecting deities, the Eight Classes of Gods and Goddesses, led by the kings of the Four Directions Tshoglings, who are getting ready to overcome obstacles to the sacred teachings. In the war scene between the Gings and the Tshoglings, the aggressive characters of the Tshoglings, and the drum beats of the Gings arouse a sense of fear in the obstacles and samaya oath breakers, guiding them to follow the righteous path of humanity. A similar performance was originally introduced by Guru Padmasambhava to aid Tibet’s King Thrisong Detsen (c. 755-797 or 804 AD). Padmasambhava used his supernatural powers at the great Samye Monastery in Tibet, he manifested in the form of Ging and Tshogling, producing an immense positive force to fight and subdue the evil spirits that hindered the construction of the monastery. With the obstacles overcome, the site became an important part of establishing the teachings of the Buddha in the region. After seeing the spectacular performance and realizing its benefits for the liberation of sentient beings, Pema Lingpa introduced the sacred mask dance to Jigten me-yul the human world, first at Korphu Temple, one of his seats in Trongsa, central Bhutan. There is still a saying that goes, "If you are not sure about the choreographies of Ging Tsholing or Tro-ging, you should visit Korphu Drub." Korphu Drub is the annual mask dance festival that coincides with the temple's dedication ceremony. Due to the importance of the dance, this mask dance was later introduced in most Tshechu, Rabney, Mewang, Mani, Drub, Drubchen (native names for the annual mask dance festival) of forts, monasteries and temples by Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyal (1594-1651) who unified Bhutan as a country, the successive spiritual leaders of the Je Khenpo as well as the temporary leaders of the Druk Desi - these spiritual masters and far-sighted monarchs.

Worshipping practices of sacred sites in Mongolia have been developed in specific cultural space of nomadic lifestyle in the vast grassland steppe of Central Asia. One of the main characteristics of nomadic culture is its close relationship and harmony with nature and environment. These practices, according to ancient shamanism, are based on belief in the existence of invisible deities of sky, earth, mountains, and all natural surroundings. Furthermore, Mongolians believe that these deities exist on the top of the mountain or any hill between sky and earth and choose these places as sacred sites for the worshipping for and offerings to these deities. They pile up Ovoos (stone mound) in these places and perform worshipping rituals and ceremonies. All participants at the worshipping rituals ask a deity to bring a timely rain, to protect humans and livestock from natural disasters, and to bestow prosperity and blessings on the participants and local people of given areas. In early times, sacred sites were worshipped with shamanic rituals and these wonderful traditions were later enriched with Buddhist teachings and rites. In a sense of respect and symbol and in geographical importance, sacred mountains, hills or the head of rivers in general have become as a cradle (centre) of the natural and cultural areas concerned and create a specific socio-cultural space and a unique cultural heritage landscape. These sacred sites are the symbol of cultural identity and spiritual cohesion of local people concerned and a sacred site for performing worshipping rituals and organizing important social events and ceremonies of given communities. Researchers regard the worshipping practices of sacred sites as multi-functional and multi-content cultural heritage element. The worshipping rituals in Mongolia have originally been conducted by the kin group and later by the local and indigenous people of a specific areas and further by specific representatives of State authorities and interested people at national level. The procedures and ritual order of worship ceremony are usually similar but some differences can be observed in regards to local customs and traditions. In different places, the people who lead worship ceremony are variously called as the owner of Ovoo or head of Ovoo. Those experienced people should be native and respectful people. In rare occasions, if a ritual is conducted in the way of shamanic tradition, a shaman leads this ritual ceremony. If it is a Buddhist ritual, a monk leads a worship ceremony. The key organizer consults with respectful elders, the head of the Buddhist monastery or shaman about the time for conducting ceremony. Timing is determined in accordance with traditional astrology. Once the time is set up, the day of worship is publicly announced. A worship ceremony is often conducted during the summer and/or autumn of the year. In the early morning before sunrise, all participants, in their best dresses, carrying offering food and items, start to head towards the Ovoo together with their young children. Bringing young children to the worship ceremony allows the youngsters to learn the customs and traditions of the community. Before starting the worship ceremony, varied coloured ceremonial scarves are tied to the main wood that is placed in an Ovoo and a hand-made figure of the deity is placed on white cotton in front of the Ovoo. Offering food and items are also placed in front of the Ovoo. Honourable guests, usually elders, sit in the north west direction of the Ovoo. If the State worship ceremony is performed, a state official opens the ceremony by reading an official decree issued for particular worship ceremony. Buddhist monks sit in the north east direction of the Ovoo. There should be more than three monks. Monks should possess knowledge of how to recite (sutra) offering texts with the use of various musical instruments. Sometimes the elders recite offering texts. Offerings including dairy products or cooked meats are placed in the east of the Ovoo. Various aromatic substances such as juniper’s needle, wormwood and wild thyme are burned as a sanctification of the sacred site. The procedure of the ritual ceremony starts with invoking deities and nymphs to come to the offering site then followed by presenting various offerings to them. After making offerings, participants of the ceremony make requests to deities and nymphs to grant richness in livestock and bestow success and prosperity on them. Monks chant sutras dedicated to this mountain and Ovoo. Meanwhile, an arrow called as bringer of auspiciousness is shot towards the sky and mark out any livestock animal as being consecrated to a divinity. Following the ceremony, a festival of horse racing, wrestling and archery competition as well as singing and dancing take place immediately. This tradition is highly considered as one of unique and humane intangible cultural heritage of Mongolia. - Locals participate at sacred site worship ceremony on a voluntarily basis. The local elders personally teach younger people how to attend and behave at the worship ceremony. A sacred site worship ceremony brings all community members together and builds a sense of community and solidarity. - The worshipping natural environment creates more awareness among the people about interdependence between human beings and the environment and creates more respect for the nature. This is one of the best environmental protection methods that has been preserved by the Mongols since ancient time. - The ritual procession is based on Mongolian folk beliefs, literature, poetry, song, dance, rituals, festive events and as well as handicrafts. Thus, the sacred site worship ceremony preserves those ICH elements through time. In sum, it is clear that worshipping practices of sacred sites have immeasurable value both in transmission of ICH and as a source of public education, identity and pride. At the practical level, these practices play an important role in maintaining ecological balance and the preservation and protection of biological and cultural diversity. This heritage significantly contributes to the protection of our natural environment and wildlife as sacred and pristine.

Mongolia 2017

Sacred texts representing the spirit, philosophy and teachings of the Buddha are chanted by the monks (Lamas) in the monasteries and villages of the Ladakh region. Buddhism in Ladakh has two sects: Mahayana - that follows the Sutra (treatise) tradition, based on the teachings of Budhha delivered in the form of public discourse; and Vajrayana - that follows a highly esoteric tradition based on the principles espoused by the Tantra practices. There are four major sects of Buddhism in Ladakh namely Nyngma, Kagyud, Shakya and Geluk. Each of these sects has several forms of chanting practised on diverse occasions as annual festivals; agrarian, life cycle healing rituals; for general well being, and to attain Buddhahood. Vajrayana Buddhism stresses the visualisation and recitation of Mantra through the practice of chanting. The chanting of Mantras is an integral part of Buddhist life in Ladakh. Buddhist Chanting is primarily practised in a group, by the monks. It is practised everyday in the monastic assembly hall as a prayer to the deities for world peace, and for personal growth of the practitioner. The villagers also patronise this tradition; they invite the monks to their homes for chanting on various occasions, such as family functions and important days in the agrarian calendar. In fact, on any given day, sounds of chanting can be heard in the villages all over Ladakh. It is a part of Ladakh’s daily life and cultural heritage. Monasteries work as the repository of knowledge and tradition, and as a channel for continuation and preservation of chanting. Buddhist chanting is highly evolved and stylised. The young monks are trained under strict and rigorous supervision of senior monks. Chanting texts are recited frequently till they are committed to memory. Thus chanting as a tradition is passed on from generation to generation as an oral practice and knowledge. The senior monks train young acolytes in the correct use of hand gestures ('mudra') that is an integral part of most chanting traditions. Bells, hand drums, flutes and the trumpets are usually used as accompaniments during chanting. They lend musicality and rhythm to the chanting. The four sects of Vajrayana Buddhism have their own different styles of chanting. Chanting styles can vary from one monastery to another, even if they belong to the same sect. In some sects, chanting is also accompanied with dance ('cham'), which is practised in the monastic courtyard. The Cham chantings of Hemis and Phyang, though they belong to the same sect of Kargyudpa, have entirely different chanting styles. The seven forms of chanting included in the dossier represent the diversity of the tradition practised in the Ladakh region. 1. Shargangrima - It is one of the most popular chanting of Gelukpa Sect. This is a eulogy recited by the Lamas as well as by the lay people in honour of Je Tzongkhapa who founded the Gelukpa sect in the 14th and 15th century. In Sargangrima, the chanters address Je Tzongkhapa as the second Budhha and celebrate him as the Son of the eastern province. 2. Nashthan Phyagzod -This chant uses musical instruments and 'mudras' (hand gestures) during chanting. It is a prayer for the 16 disciples or Arhats of the Budhha. Nashthan Phyagzod is chanted by the Lamas for all sects. The Arhats are the direct successors of the Buddha, the bearers of His teachings. The chant is a prayer to the Arhats to stay eternally on the earth for the sake of Dharma. At the end of each stanza, the chanters play drums, blow on a long flute and beat cymbals, providing a musical rhythm to the chanting. The monks symbolically offer music, dance, incense, flowers, lamps and food through 'mudras.' 3. Kunrig – This chant stresses on the internal visualisations by monks through repetitive chanting and 'mudras.' 4. Rigmachutuk – This chanting is performed by monks who dance in the courtyard of the monastery, wearing copper masks, silk robes and special shoes. It is based on two tantric texts. Rigmachutuk are the 16 fairy maidens or 'dakinis' who escort the titular Guru Padmasambhava in his Dharma missions. It is also performed during the funeral procession of senior monks. 5. Guru Mantra - This Mantra is recited by all followers of Mahayana tradition in Ladakh. This text is seen engraved on stones and metals and inscribed in flags and clothes all over this region. It is believed that this Mantra purifies the human beings of their sins. 6. Chod - It is a secret practice that is usually performed in the cemeteries. Chod requires great concentration and high meditative qualities. In this, the performer visualises that his consciousness has separated from his body, and has transformed into a deity. 7. Guhyasamaj Tantra – This chanting includes 'mudras' through which the monks emulate different missions of the Buddha. These chanting rites are performed all over Ladakh in various monasteries and villages. The nomination contains audio-visual documentation of performances conducted in strict adherence to scriptural guidelines, and under the guidance by the chief Lamas in the following monasteries. Thiksay Monastery Spituk Monastery Matho Monastery Hemis Monastery Phyang Monastery

India 2012