Noken is a knotted net bag or woven bag made from wood fibre or leaves, sometimes coloured and decorated. Noken is a traditional handcraft of all communities of Papua and West Papua Provinces, Indonesia. The day-to-day function of large size noken is for carrying plantation produce, catch from the sea or lake, wood, babies, small animals, shopping, etc., and for hanging at home to store things. Small size noken is for carrying personal effects such as betel nut, food, books, etc. Noken may be used to cover the head or body. For nearly all (275/311) respondents, noken is an accessory to their traditional dress, and according to most (290/311) is used in traditional ceremonies or celebrations, such as marriage proposals, marriage ceremonies, initiation of children, appointment of community leaders, welcoming guests and for keeping sacred heirlooms.. Among mountain communities, noken had been given along with other presentations to make peace between disputing parties. Drs. H. Rahimin Katjong, Deputy Governor of West Papua, recalled wearing a small noken containing betel nut etc at the time of his appointment as a traditional community leader at Fak Fak, West Papua. Nearly all (276/311) respondents explained that noken is used by all age groups, and most (282/311) observed that noken is used by both sexes. As soon as babies learn to walk, their mothers give them a small noken containing food such as sweet potatoes, thus instilling the habit of carrying one’s own needs, which may also be used to help others, inside a noken which is always close at hand. Three quarters of respondents (235/311) said that noken is generally made by women-- ”the Mamas of Papua”--usually adults according to most respondents (250/311). Women thus play a special role in safeguarding noken culture. At Epouto village in Paniai District, we found male orchid-noken craftsmen. Asmat community men also make noken. Most craftspersons make noken in their spare time from agriculture, fishing, and household duties, though some make noken full time. Noken making goes on yearround, but will increase in times leading up to traditional festivals. The method of making noken varies between communities. A basic outline is as follows. Branches or stems or bark of certain small trees or shrubs are cut, sometimes heated over a fire, and soaked in water for some days. After soaking, only wood fibre remains. The Dani/Hugula in Wamena peel bark from sticks of certain trees and then beat the sticks till only fibres remain. The wood fibre is dried, and then spun with the palm of the hand on the thigh of the craftsperson to make a strong thread or string, which is sometimes coloured using natural dyes. This string is knotted by hand to make net bags with various patterns and sizes. The same technique is used to make vests, hats, belts, etc.. In Paniai District we find noken interwoven with special decoration made from fibres from yellow, brown and black. orchid stems. Besides knotting, there are communities which make noken by weaving tree bark, wood fibre, pandan leaf, young sago leaf, or grass from swamps. Some select grasses with contrasting colours (Inanwatan, Metemani, Kais and Kokoda (Imeko) communities). Maybrat community craftspersons colour the fibres with natural colours. The fibres, leaves or grass are woven in various attractive patterns with symbolic meanings. To make noken requires great manual skill, care, artistic sense and inner satisfaction. Craftspersons often make noken while singing traditional songs of Papua. To become proficient in making noken takes up to several months of informal training. A skilled noken craftsperson will be much appreciated within her (or his) community. The diversity of making, wearing and use of noken continues to develop and be recreated as the response of the people of Papua to nature and their environment.

Indonesia 2012

Mongolians have long-standing tradition in making of leather items that is used in the daily life associated with herding of animals. The leather knotting process includes tanning, cutting, knotting, and smoking the hide and skin. Mongolians make a number of different types of ropes and other accessories by leather knotting, including lassos, hobbles, bridles, halters, cruppers, saddle straps, breast-straps, saddle fasteners, girths, bow straps, and other such items. The traditional accessories made by leather knotting are durable enough to endure use for even several generations.

Yig-par koni is an adverb that means engraving of scripts which is the art of Xylography, one of the indigenous craftsmanship art of Bhutan. Script engraving is done using special wood locally called Tag-pa shing (Birch: Betula utilis) that flourishes at altitudes varying from 3000 to 4200 meters above sea level. Tag-pa shing can be easily identified by its bark that has a mix red and pink and brown colours alternatively across the trunk like that of a tiger’s skin thus got its name. The art is considered as one of the religious craftsmanship since its significance, production and usage are all connected to spiritualistic believes and purpose. In Bhutan, the presence of skills for making woodblock prints are seen in temples, monasteries and Dzongs (fortress) every part of the country in the form of biographies, excellent teachings of the Buddha printed from woodblocks. The earliest biography is that of Terton (Hidden treasure discoverer) Pema Lingpa (1450-1521), as prophesied by Guru Padmasambava, the epitome of the Secret Teachings of Tantric Buddhism. Terton Pema Lingpa was the last reincarnate of Princess Pema Sal (?), daughter of King Thrisong Deutsan of Tibet. Owing to the propensity of his previous lives, the Terton knew craft works without training, and dedicating his skills to ensure the continuity of the Buddha’s teachings, had made uncountable number woodblocks, available in the monasteries established by the Terton himself and by his sons as well as in the house of a number of his patrons that can be seen even today. Moreover, Thugse Dawa Gyaltshan (1499-1586), the son of Pema Lingpa, had also engraved as many as 614 woodblocks for the collected works and autobiography in memory of his father which is still preserved at the sacred place of Kunzang Drag, Bumthang Dzongkhag (district). After Terton Pema Lingpa and his heart son Thugse Dawa Gyaltshen had started the tradition of woodblock print, Choje Ngagwang Tenzin (1522-1590), the reincarnate of Gartoen who was the son of Phajo Drugom Zhigpo, engraved the biography of Phajo Drugom in about 1570 (C.E). Then, in the 17th century Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyal, having satisfactorily completed all the activities related to the dual system and before he went into the final retreat (i.e. parinirvana), initiated a project to engrave the collected works of the omniscient Pema Karpo (1527-1592) and all the essential ones and its prints are distributed them to all the monasteries and sangha communities as dharma donations. He created of the seat of Je Khenpo as the overall head of sangha monasteries and ecclesiastical affairs and that of Desi, who functioned as the secular head of the country. He had also appointed officials to fit these high-ranking positions. The successive Je Khenpo and Desis ensured the practice, manage and spread of the teachings and the good system of administration, by engraving unlimited number of woodblocks prints in their respective areas which can be seen still today in all the historical monuments. However, due to the advancement of printing technologies, the National Library & Archives of Bhutan is the only institution that is upholding the xylography art in the country while the practice is turned its form to an oral account.

Ganchkarlik (plastering and carving special alabaster – ganch) is one of the most ancient types of architectural-decorative arts of Uzbekistan. In the ХХ century its main centers were located in Khiva, Bukhara, Tashkent, Samarkand, Andijan, Namangan and Qoqand. Ganch carving art is indivisibly connected with architectural art than other types of applied folk art. From time immemorial, it has been used for decorating palaces, madrasahs, mosques and houses. The technique of creating a pattern on ganch surface is labor-intensive one. First, on the raw surface draft picture of the future ornamental pattern is drawn. Then, relief pattern is cut along the outline, while the background is deepened and salient parts of the pattern are finished. Also, special skill requires the work on relief pattern, because the effect of perception of the whole carved panel depends on it. As a matter of fact, Uzbek masters have developed many techniques of finishing relief patterns, which make carved panels look more dynamic, their salient and deepened parts more expressive thanks to the effect of light and shade.

Rigma Chudruk Cham is a pacifying dance, performed solely by monks wearing exquisite costumes to represent the sixteen goddesses that make various offerings to enlightened beings. Generally, the dance has two types: Rigma Chudruk Cham and Rigma Chudruk Nga Cham. Though the costumes are identical, these dances can be easily differentiated by the instruments they use. The first Rigma Chudruk Cham performs with Drilbu, bell, and Daru or Damaru, a small two-headed drum. The latter dance exclusively plays Nga drums with Ne-tok, drum-stick. The dance is known by various names across different Buddhist traditions: Rigma Chudruk Cham; Khandro-mai Cham Dance of Dakinis; Zhe-wai Cham pacifying dance; Dorji Lhamo chudruk sixteen Vajra Dakinis; Choe-pai Lhamo Chudruk Sixteen Offering Goddesses; and Dodyon-gi Lhamo Chudruk Sixteen Pleasurable Goddesses. The sixteen goddesses not only bestow wisdom but also entertain and bring enjoyable offerings to the enlightened spiritual beings. These goddesses are generally classified into three groups: Outer, Inner, Secret Offering Goddesses. The first group consists of four members: 1. Gegmo-ma, Skt. Lasya, Goddess of Grace 2. Threngwa-ma, Skt. Mala, Garland Goddess 3. Lu-ma, Skt. Gita, Singer 4. Gar-ma, Skt. Nirti, Dancer The second group has also four members: 1. Meto-ma, skt. Pushpe, Flower Offering Goddess 2. Dhugpe-ma, Skt. Dhupa, Incense Offering Goddess 3. Nangsel-ma, Skt. Aloka, Lamp offering Goddess 4. Drichab-ma, Perfume Offering Goddess The third group has five goddesses: 1. Piwang-ma, Violin player 2. Lingbu-ma, flute player 3. Ngadum-ma, Drum player 4. Zanga-ma, Skt. Muranyyaze, Clay-drum player 5. Zuk Dorji-ma, Skt. Vajra Dakini, Vajra Form Goddess The last group has three. 1. Ro Dorj- ma, Taste Vajra Goddess 2. Rek-ja Dorji ma, Feeling Vajra Goddess 3. Choying Dorji ma, Skt. Dharmadatu Vajra Dakini, Vajra Goddess of unfabricated awareness.

Sumolok is a ritual dish cooked by the entire community for spring holiday Nooruz. Sumolok is a brown, nutritious, sweet paste-like liquid dish. Children like eating it very much. Sumolok is cooked for 20-24 hours. Firstly, the oil is heated in a big pot (kazan), then the flower is fried in it and the first batch of mushed sprouts are added. When it starts getting thicker, the second and then third batches are added. When it starts boiling, it is put on slow fire for 5-6 hours. When it seems ready, the fire is put off and sumolok is left under its own steam. In the morning, the eldest women open sumolok and everyone looks at the surface of it. Various interesting lines form on the surface. They are used to make predictions for the coming year. When sumolok is cooled down it is served for the community members.

" Kor Chuk " is one of the adolescent ceremonies of the Cambodian people from birth to death. This ceremony is to prepare the person to enter adulthood. The ancient Khmer practiced this tradition in almost every family. Children, both boys, and girls, from the age of one year, had to shave their hair to clean their heads every month or every holy day, leaving only one piece of hair (chuk or kampoy) at the top, or some kept three pieces like the angle of the stove on the top of the head, and until the age of 12 or 13 (the girl is kept under the age of puberty). Then the ceremony of shaving off the hair. Today, this tradition is almost extinct in Cambodia, except in the Angkor area and in the north or northwest part of the country. By this, it does not mean that there is no such a tradition in other places, it is just rare. The tradition of the ceremony may differ slightly from district to region, so here is the tradition in Chan village, Tang Krasang commune, Batheay district, Kampong Cham province. The locals call this ceremony “shaving or cutting off the Kompoy.” Nowadays, in this area, the practice of keeping the hair on children from a very young age is very rare. Due to financial problems, some families cannot effort throwing the shaving or cutting off the Kompoy ceremony for those children who keep the Kompoy. Even though the locals do not care much for their children to keep their Komoy as before, they still have the desire to celebrate the ceremony of cutting their children's hair because it is a tradition and a blessing for children at this age. Probably because of the limited resources, the locals often have the shaving off ceremony together with the "Cheagn Mlub" ceremony. The process of the ceremony lasts 1 night and 2 days. The first day is called the day of Jol Rorng. Since the morning, the villagers, some relatives, and some neighbors on whom the host relied came to help with their chores, such as building a shaving place and arranging various offerings, as follows. Rundab Tver Tmenh: Soul rice (sticky rice in a glass or in a soup bowl with banana leaf cones), fresh coconut, cut the head of the coconut enough to cover the water with the banana leaf cones on top and wrap a cloth or scarf around it. Rundab Kor Sork neng Bom Berk Phnek: a plate for a razor blade or razor blade, hair comb, glass, perfume, oil, powder, banana leaf container to keep the hair, water container or Ork Kombor, a grass ring, a gold ring and a silver ring for attachment with the three pieces of hair or one piece of hair. Bay Srey Derm: is made from a virgin banana trunk, assuming that the height is the same as the child who shaves his hair. The upper bouts featured consist of Kon Bay Srey 5 Tnak, wrapped around by banana leaf or by texture silk. Represents all children. A stick or a diamond sword: made from the top of two palm leaves, with Bali inscription along the leaves, and the end of the leaves are twisted together for children to carry or wear around their necks during the ceremony. Dong Tpech: Dong made of bamboo for Tpech cotton, curved on both ends like the body of a bow (look similar to Tu Korng). At the front bend or head, three incense sticks and a candle are tied, and at the end of the tail or Konsai they tie a piece of Mlu and a piece of Sla. Dong Tpech is used when Grandpa Achar leads the person to the shave place. Ceremony: Although this Kor Chok ceremony goes hand in hand with the "Cheagn Mlub" ceremony, now let the story of shaving alone be shown. The actual ceremony begins in the afternoon, beginning with the offering of Krong Pali on the ground facing east, towards Rean Bosbok. This work is to inform the owner of the water in the sense of declaring. Ta Acha (layman) asked the owner of the ceremony to hold Dong Tpech and he led the way to the up-stair of the house.

Wood turned utensils and dishes were present in Bhutan since ancient times. Communities from different parts of Bhutan have a similar type of craft as cups and plates are necessary for all household meals. However, the labour-intensive wood turned lacquer wares from Yangtse earned a considerable reputation in the kingdom. About a century-old traditional woodturning art (Shag-zo) in Yangtse is still a vibrant and popular means of family business and occupation. The present young artisans in Yangtse who are in their 20s and early 30s are the fifth-generation descendants of Lobazang from Kham in Tibet. Like other crafts of Bhutan, Shagzo demands a long process. The extracted wood knots and burls have to be dried; soaked in water; roughly shaped (first turned); roughly turned bowls are boiled; dried again; final turned bowls are smoothened with sandpapers and dried leaves of Trema politoria (locally known as Sog sogpa-shing). After colouring them yellow or red, it becomes ready for the next step – lacquering. Lacquering is another time-consuming process. Traditionally, lacquerers mostly use an urushiol-based lacquer common in East Asia derived primarily from toxic wax trees known as Sey Shing in Yangtse. These wooden bowls are an integral part of both the Bhutanese and Tibetan lifestyles and this explains the high demand for these products in Tibet. In the medieval period, people from Yangtse and Bumdeling traded wooden plates (not Dhapas) and bowls (cups) to Assam (India) and Go-phors (wooden bowl with lid), Lha-phor (bowl with lid used by monks), Dra-phor (bigger than other Phobs originally used by Tibetan Drapas), and Bay-phor (used by Tibetans, and has a deeper interior than Bhutanese hobs) to people of Tibet. Other than products historically exported to Assam and Tibet, Shagzopas make varieties of wood-turned products.

Solo Tshung-nang is one of the special gifts offered to guests along with a bottle of wine (normally ara-locally brewed alcohol), for family members, weeding ceremonies, and also to any guest during special occasions. Solo Tsungma is locally prepared from either dried or fresh chili peppers – preferably dried chili powdered and mixed with Nam black sesame seeds, pumpkin seed and other delicacies neatly wrapped in particular leaves such as; Laga wild banana leaf, Chong-shing laga fig leaf and other specific wild leaf which have broad in width. Amongst these wrapping leaves, laga is preferred and widely used. The practice of making and offering Solo Tshung-ma is active and a popular gift in the villages within Decheling, Norbugang and Choekhorling gewogs (block) under Pemagatshel Dzongkhag (district). Prerequisite ingredients and materials: -\tLaga: wild banana leaf (preferred), Chong-shing laga fig leaf, Mong-nang laga, lau laga, and other wild leaves as wrappers. -\tKudpa ney-nga: Five coloured thread (preferred) or fiber of any other tree such as Soga do (bamboo thread) and Phrang three bark fiber etc. -\tLocally grown and dried chili -\tNam: black sesame seeds are one of the most important ingredients for preparing the pickle thus calling it nam-solo or sesame pickle. -\tBrum-sha lung: pumpkin seed -\tNam-jor: similar to sesame -\tTsha: salt Types of Solo Tshung-nang: -\tNam solo (chili and sesame mixed pickle) - \tNam-jor Solo (chili and white sesame mixed pickle) -\tBrumsha lung Solo (chili and pumpkin seed mixed pickle) -\tChur Solo (chili and fresh cheese pickle) note this kind cannot be preserved but is also offered as gift. When offering Solo Tshung-nang it is always offered along with local wine ara, or ara dama, which is raw or un-brewed wine. It is popular to fill a So-palag traditional bamboo container with ara as an appetizer locally called Kam-tang where first the ara is offered followed by Solo Tshung nang. When given as an appetizer, it is traditional that you must offer the tshung nang with a knot concealed underneath.

Generally, there is three wrathful tantric rituals; Nen (suppression), Seg (burn) and Phang (throw), exorcize and overcoming destructive evil spirits which the rituals reveal to be our own negative thoughts. In the Norbugang village community there are only a few households who organize the Se-nen ritual, which is performed along with the annual ritual called Lha-sey (lha gsol). Locally called Se-dam-pey, “burying the evil spirits,” the power of blessing of this annual ritual suppresses the source of ill-luck, famine, drought, diseases, quarrels, untimely deaths, and other unfavorable circumstances for the forthcoming year. It bestows peace and tranquility to the members of the family and the community as well. Se-dam-pey is performed according to the Lama Nor-jam liturgy text of the Pema Lingpa tradition, and it also includes local variations and worldly activities such as using household items to suppress the spirits and cheering with songs while dragging the Se to be buried. Locals believe this ritual was performed by Guru Padmasambhava while building the majestic Samye monastery in Lhasa, Tibet in the 8th century. Padmasambhava was invited by the Tibetan King Trisong Detsen to build Samye monastery after Vairocana, the eminent translator, could not control the evil activities at the construction site through compassionate acts. When Guru Padmasambhava arrived he used his unique accomplishment in tantric methods to summon the soul of the evil spirits and gather the country’s bad fortune which he suppressed into the ground and buried underneath the foundation of the building, concealed by vajra seal. Thereafter, the construction of the monastery proceeded without unfavourable circumstances or evil accidents. The final monastery was magnificent and could propagate the tantric teachings. Those teachings were brought to Bhutan by Guru Padmasambhava himself in the mid-eight century, and propagated by numerous eminent Vajra practitioners. Se-nen is revered as one of the most grand and powerful blessing rituals. In contemporary practice, the ritual is conducted by a community for the benefit of the people and is dedicated to all sentient beings. The power of the ritual is believed to suppress negativity and evil spells and leave blessings of peace, happiness and tranquillity. Prerequisite tools to prepare Se: -\tSe-ama or Se-lud (effigy representing the evil spirit), a painted human face on a boiled egg. -\tChong (gourd) to conceal the effigy. Although the original text requires a monkey skull to conceal the Se-ama, villagers use a gourd. -\tThe anchor is inserted through the knot and the rope is fastened to drag the Se ama into the Se-ga gang hole. -\tGo-tham shum (Egg shell to draw the face of the Se-ama -\tNab-sang (black cloth) for wrapping the gourd -\tKud-pa ney-nga (five colored thread) to bind -\tLa-cha (lacquer) for sealing -\tTek-pa (anchor) for clinching -\tRong-shong (rope) for pulling -\tThag-chey (all the traditional weaving tools) -\tNye-shing (pestle) -\tTok-tsi (small mortar and pestle) -\tGu-ga gang-che (drum handle) -\tRol-moi gang-che (cymbal handle) -\tSe-ga wang (hole to bury the Se-ama). The hole is usually dug just outside the threshold of a door. It is believed that the Se ama buried there will always remain underneath people’s feet.

People in the world believe in the incarnation, and in order to be reborn, relatives and friends have to perform many ceremonies dedicated to their beliefs; however, the practice of this tradition varies from nation to nation. Even within Cambodia may vary by region. In the city or town, the body is usually cremated immediately within a few days after the death and the ashes are collected. This can be explained by the fact that the location and lifestyle required this. In some areas, after death, the body is permanently buried. In other areas, especially the Angkor region, Siem Reap, whether rich or poor, a deceased person must go through two major ceremonies. In the first stage, when death occurs, it is very important to perform a funeral one to two days, after the body is buried in the grave for at least a year. The locals understand that this is to let the earth embrace the body and feed the animals, that is, let the soil and water (adjacent to the soil) dissolve the body one step at a time. When the flesh is rotten, only the bones are left, and then the bones are burned and the air finally dissolves. This is because the human body is made up of four elements: water, earth, fire and air, and when dissolved it is made up of these four elements. According to the locals, the feeding of animals does not refer to vultures or other animals, but to earthworms. When a Chinese diplomat named Chiv Takwan arrived in Angkor in the 13th century, he wrote “a human corpse is placed in the wood to be eaten by animals”, it is believed that the soul will be incarnated faster”. Whatever the tradition, the main reason is how to get the dead person to reincarnate. The second stage is the cremation. Before the ceremony, the priest must do the ritual of "Yorng Sob" which is to remove the bones from the pit, wash them, pack them in rags, and wrap them in another mat, then place them on a tree trunk. After that, they arrange a joint cremation on the field. Because the burial was made long ago before the cremation and it is a joint cremation, so they could choose the day and the month as they wish. Cremation is usually held during the month of Phalkun, and although the ceremony lasts for several days, the day of the cremation has to be on "Ronoch". In general, this cremation is very solemn because it is held together by many families with about 10 to 100 corpses. In the case of any family with sufficient resources or the corpse of the former chief priest of the pagoda, it can be done separately, but it is very rare. The funeral lasts for 3 nights and 3 days. On the first night, they started a ritual called “stealing the corps” by taking the corpse (the package of bones from the Yorng Sob task) and hanging it on a tree or putting it in Saley cart until the evening of the third day before the corpse procession to the funeral hall or crematorium or "Phnom Yorng " or called "Meru") in the Khmer language. In the morning, on the first day, elders, priests and relatives of all the corpses prepare according to their respective duties and affordability. Achar (Priest) Yogi draws 12 soul flags, Achar organizes Buddha altars and an eight-story pavilion. Grandmas prepare Bay Betabor, Bay Sey and Sla Tor and men Jak Jek, making sand mountain, making Rean Nim Reach or Rean Puth Kun and Phnom Yong. Whereas, young women prepare spices, fish, meat for cooking and baking. On the same day, the initiator of the festival brings “Kroeung Bonlong” to a nun who has a role of "Keas Junh Jean Tbong". A priest ordains a man who will “Buos Mok Plerng”. Another priest performed the ritual of calming the coffin by measuring a banana vine and sprinkling water on the coffin. In the afternoon (around 3 PM), Acha Yogi performs Krong Pali. The next ritual is to raise the Aphitorm flag and the crocodile flag. The work is solemn as there is "Chark Ho." Later, seven monks recite prayers and performed sermons, and the next work is “Apisek” on Buddha statue. The ritual ends with a performance on the scene which “Socheata took honey “Mathubayeas” to give to the Buddha. In the early morning of the second day, arriving at the funeral hall, they piled up the sand, from a nearby pond to build a mountain with perfect decoration. According to the elders, the sand mountains represent the stupas in the Trinity. After that, the priests and elders performed the ordination ceremony of the sand mountain. On the second day, from about 3 to 4 pm, they prepare a reception. Traditionally, they often make Num Banjok “Khmer noodles” for the reception. It was about 4:30 when the corpse procession leaves the place where it was kept and enter the festival hall. The procession was followed by ritual items. The nun wears a gem ring, sitting in the front row, while the relatives of the corpse carry pole of Balong, and there is a monk sitting on a wheelless cart carried by men. Next, relatives were strapped by Sbov Pleang knot to a Somley cart, and four monks sit on the cart. If it is a procession of the body of the King or the body of the high priest, chariot is decorated and designed as a dragon or phoenix. Upon entering the Pnum Yorng, they process three rounds around the mountain. Then, Achar Yogi and Achar Phluk, they perform prayers and prayers in front of the Rean Puth Kun. Relatives of the corpses placed fragrant vines under the coffin. They make gods to come down and offer fire, and firecrackers were set on fire to run and set the coffin on fire. While worshiping, the Acha-yogi sits chanting dharma on the east side. As for the four Achar Pluk, they sit and chant dharma in the halls of each direction. The Keas Jun Jean Tbong nun meditates next to the funeral hall. This meditation session is to see which corpses have been received Balong and which corpses have not yet been received. After the cremation, Achar Yogi and Achar Phluk take banana leaves and a krama to cover the bones mixed with charcoal and rotate the Popil for the corpse. Later, the "transformation" ritual is the most important, Achar Yogi draw a human form and start a ritual for the corpse. Then Popil rotation ritual will be started, the relatives of the corpse collect the ashes, wash them with coconut water and put the ashes in a Krama hammock, and sing a lullaby to put the ashes to sleep as if putting the baby to sleep too. All ashes will be taken by relatives to keep at home for a while. The main rituals can be said to be over now, but the cremation ceremony will be completed on the morning of the third day, Rorb Bart ceremony and unrope sand mountain. So far, it is believed that the souls are not in peace yet, it is required to have one more ritual called interment of ashes. However, some families could not afford to keep the ashes at the stupa or under the temple grounds, they only do minor ritual. But if the family of the deceased has a prosperous life, they will hold another burial ceremony.

Thagzo or the art of weaving is one of the oldest and widely used skills that have been practised for ages. The all-encompassing use of textiles represents prestige, artistic skills, discipline, determination, familial sentiments, tangible form of asset, and expressions of devotion towards the dharma. Bhutanese textiles are the product of knowledge and skills developed and nurtured over centuries of experiences and family traditions. Our textiles are valued and renowned for their richness of colour, sophistication and variation of patterns, including the intricate fibre preparation, dyeing, weaving, and embroidery techniques. This rich and complex art of weaving is an inseparable part of our culture and history. Today, the wide availability of imported fibres and dyes are transforming the palette, textures, and surface qualities of the clothes produced. There are more than eleven types of yarns and dyes including the five main colours (white, yellow, red, green and blue) and six subsidiary colours (orange, dark green, light yellowish green, pink, light white, blue and black). These different colours are woven in accordance with different designs and patterns. Women from central and eastern regions of Bhutan are famous for their weaving skills and each region produces their own specialty. a. Weaving with Designs and Patterns: Every textile product has a name that expresses its particular combination of colour, design, pattern and fibre. Weaving pattern is either stripes - vertical for men, and horizontal for women in cotton, silk or wool. Required extra designs are made by adding warp threads. Patterns like the vajra (thunderbolt), the swastika, the tree or the wheel, each has symbolic meanings. Although the symbols used in Bhutanese textiles are primarily of geometric nature, they also have deep religious meanings. Some common geometric symbols include the dorje (Vajra), the drame (nets), the phenphenma (butterflies), the phub (Kiliya), the yudrung (Swastika), and the shinglo (leaves). The drame or the eternal knot is a classic Buddhist symbol. The phenphenma is a symbol of butterfly and the eight-pointed star, while the dorje or the thunderbolt represents the indestructible powers of Buddhism. The phub or the rainbow is a triangle pattern in successive rainbow colours. When dorje symbol is incorporated within the phub symbol, the pattern becomes dorje\u0002phub. The shinglo symbol is used mostly on the royal and noble family dresses since this symbol is the most difficult to weave. The shinglo symbol represents the “tree of life”. The therpochay ( Jana chagri) or the China Wall pattern is usually seen next to the phub design on kiras. The therpochay symbol is believed to have been derived from the designs on Chinese brocade. The yudrung portrays the crossroads where the four directions meet. A yudrung represents the balancing forces of the universe, when rotating. The yudrung is an ancient pattern and its epicentre is considered a spiritual place. Yudrung is depicted on the royal thrikheb as the centre most design. Bhutanese weavers usually weave two types of textiles; the plain woven meaning kar chang, and the pattern woven textile called metochem. These are described below. a.1. Karchang: The plain woven textiles include pangtse, mathra, sethra, adang mathra, shardang thara, and pe sar. Plain woven clothes are worn at home or work since they are cheaper than the pattern-woven clothes. Mathra (red pattern) is a varicolored plaid woven on a maroon or red field, sometimes woven with stripes (khaja) at the edges. Sethra (gold pattern) is a plaid weave usually with yellow or orange field as the dominant colour. Sethra has two popular colour combinations; red with black or blue plaid on a white field; and yellow, white and black on an orange field. Sethra dokhana consists of black colour in it while buechapgi sethra does not contain black. Thara has horizontal stripes with white as a dominant field. Shardang thara has multicoloured stripes while Samkhongma have narrow red-and-blue stripes, and Mondre which has a similar pattern to Samkhongma is worn mainly by older people in rural areas. Kamtham Jadrima is a striped textile with colours of the rainbow. Kamtham thara consists of simple warp stripes or plaids, which are gifted to a religious person. Pesar (new design) is a modern innovation with small patterns in striped plain cloth. Yu tham or the country cloth which is made of wild silk or cotton is very popular in the rural areas. Kawley is a completely black fabric of wool, which is believed to have healing properties. a.2. Meto Chem: Aikapur and Ku shu thara are the two specific kinds of pattern-woven textiles. Pattern-woven clothes are considered special, and are valued and saved for special occasions like festivals, marriages and for New Year celebrations. Bhutanese weavers weave many different types of clothes with intricate designs such as leaves, birds, trees and other animal patterns. These are briefly explained below. Aikapur: Aikapur is a textile woven of cotton or silk, and appears to be embroidered. Aikapur has double faced pattern bands called hor which alternate with rows of plain weave; with always an odd number of legs ‘kangpa’ or cross hatches. A textile is referred to as a b-sampa (with three legs; b-napa (with five legs); b-zumpa (with seven legs); b-gupa (with nine legs); b-songhthurpa (with eleven legs); and b-songsampa (with thirteen legs). Aikapur is differentiated by the colour of the background thread, and the supplementary thread used. The common colours used in aikapur are: dromchu chema, literally meaning ‘little boxes’, with red, green, yellow, and white pattern bands. Mentse mathra is a material with a yellow base, and with red and green stripes. Montha has a blue or black background with red pattern bands between colourful stripes. Lungserma has green and red pattern bands on a yellow background. Shinglo or ‘tree of life’ patterns made on the fabric are used to assess the quality of an aikapur. The delicate branches and leaves of these trees are inspected when judging the quality of a textile. Kushu Thara: Kushu thara used to be considered aristocratic and the most prestigious dress for women. Ku shu thara is woven from vegetable dyed cotton and raw silk (bura) or entirely from silk. Ku shu thara has spectacular brocade design which take up to a year to weave. Ku shu thara is always embellished on a white base, and a similar kira with a blue or black background is called ngosham .Sapma, the continuous weft patterns, and tingma, the alternative weft patterns are used as base pattern for kushuthara, ngosham or shinglochem. Shinglochem can be either a gho or a kira, woven with alternate rows of warp pattern bands. b. Weaving Materials: Bhutanese produce fibres such as raw cotton, wool, nettle fibre, yak hair and bura (raw silk). The most expensive and the most valued fibre in Bhutan is raw silk. The Bhutanese do not kill the silk worms that remain inside after spinning its cocoon, but are left until they escape, which breaks the thread before it is unrolled. That is why, Bhutanese raw silk feels and looks relatively coarse compared to Indian and Chinese silk. Several types of yarn like seshu (cultivated from mulberry silk moth Bombayx mori), bura (produced by wild non-mulberry silk moth), namdru kuep (parachute silk), and varieties of silk imported from India are notable. b.1. Nettle: Nettle or stinging nettle, though now rarely used, is said to have been the original and chief fibre used by weavers in ancient Bhutan. Nettle fibre is coarse but strong and durable. That is why people in villages used it to weave sacks, bags, kurel, pagi, pakhi, bundi and tabden. Owing to its strength it is also used as bow string. Nettle is herbaceous flowering plant that grows in temperate and sub-tropical zone. The plant grows up to 2 meters in height with spiny stems and leaves and bears white to yellowish flowers. Nettle bark contains baste fibre which is strong, smooth and light. In Bhutan, nettle fibres are harvested in the months of October and November. After peeling the stems, the fibres are dried, and then cooked with ash for about 6 hours. The fibres are then washed with cold water, and beaten in order to remove the outer cover. After removing the outer cover, the fibres are dried and dyed with natural dyes. The nettle plants are shredded, and twisted into thin fibres using a drop spindle. Nettle fibres are used to weave bundi or carry bag. Bundi is usually woven with brocaded yudrung motif at the centre of the middle panel, on a white colour base. The bundi or carry bag consists of three lengths of cloth sewn together to form a square panel. Ropes on the diagonal sides of this piece are tied together to carry possessions and bedding. b.2. Wool: Yarns from yak, sheep and goat wool are spun using phang (drop spindle) and moved to a chaphang (spinning wheel). The herders of the high valleys of Merak and Sakteng weave shingka (tunic-style dresses), women’s jackets and belts. They also make hats, ropes, tents, and bags out of yak hair, and floor mats and blankets from sheep wool. The Layap women’s dress includes a black woollen jacket, a long woollen skirt, adorned with lot of jewels, which often include teaspoons. Women also wear conical bamboo hats with a bamboo spike at the top, held by beaded bands. Shingka, an ancient tunic-style textile that was woven with either a ngoshingkha (blue) or a laushingkha (red) wool base, was worn by a high lama during religious ceremonies. Char khab, woven from wool (of yak or sheep) either on a pedal loom or back strap loom is used for protection from snow, cold, and rain. It is water-resistant and an essential item for the herders in cold the region. Sephu charkhab (rain cloaks from Sephu) is a colourful textile with bands of green, blue, white and orange. Bumthang and Trongsa were known for a woollen fabric called yathra, which was used as a cover from rain and cold. In the late 1990s, farmers in Trongsa had stopped raising sheep which inevitably put an end to the practise of weaving yathra. Yathra is used as bed covers, blankets, rain cloaks, cushion covers, sofa set covers, and as jackets for both men and women. b.3. Cotton: Kershing (cotton) is used to separate the cotton seeds, and then fluff out to make it ready for spinning into yarn with the help of a wooden spindle or spinning wheel. Usually cotton woven with traditional designs on white background, chagsi pangkheb was put on laps to wipe hands before and after meals by persons of higher positions. In the early days, Bhutanese women used to put on an apron-like wear called dongkheb as a sign of respect while approaching the king or a high official. Phechung is a cotton woven carry bag woven but its usage is now limited to ceremonial receptions along with chagsi pangkheb. Thrikheb (throne cover) is a rare textile used as the King’s throne cover. It is also used for the lamas during religious ceremonies. Chephur gyaltshen (banner with frills), gyaltshen (pair of cylindrical hangings with valance), bumgho (bumpa covers), kheb and tenkheb (altar covers),phen (pair of triangular topped hangings) and chephur (a pair of cylindrical hangings) are some of the other cloth products that are used in altars and monasteries. Hingthub is a time-consuming but highly cherished textile woven for loved ones or for use by the weaver or their ‘lord’. The finer product demonstrates the dedication of the weaver. It is also used by the weaver’s family or to stitch outer attire for statues or as wall hangings. Today most of the yarns for weaving like raw silk, cotton and acrylic are imported while some of the yarn is spun and processed locally. The availability of cheap machine spun yarns from India has overtaken the local cotton cultivation. b.4. Types of Loom: There are three types of looms used by weavers in Bhutan. Traditionally pangthag was the most commonly used loom for weaving larger size garments. The smaller version of this loom called kethag is used for weaving narrow items like belts. In the 1970s, another type of loom called thri-thag (khri-thags) was adopted from India. This loom gained popularity in the growing urban centres. This later type is a horizontal loom with pedals. Each region has a speciality in terms of designs and types. Kurtoe is known for Ku shu thara, while marthra and serthra are mostly produced in Bumthang. Trashigang district is well known for weaving aikapur, while pangkheb and montha come from Kheng. b.5. Dyes: Bhutanese weavers consider the coordination of pleasing colours more important than the designs, patterns and techniques. Strong taboos are associated with the dyeing process and the weavers are very particular about colour shades. They believe that malevolent spirits, certain weather conditions, strangers or pregnant women can ruin the dye. Like the weaving techniques, the recipes for dyeing are closely guarded family secrets and the formula is usually passed down from mother to daughter. There are a number of dye-yielding plants. Weavers obtain dyes using simple methods from barks, flowers, fruits, leaves, and roots of plants, and minerals. Today, chemical or synthetic dyes called tsho-sar are easily available while the natural dye is called tsho nying. They are easily recognisable by their hue. Some of the natural dyes obtained from plants are described below. - Indigo: Shades of green, purple, blue and black are obtained from leaves of trees locally called yangshaba (Strobilanthus flaccidifolius) in Tshangla dialect. Indigo (lndigofera spp.) plants are cultivated in household gardens as a source of blue dye. Alum earths, sour fruits, and dug shing (Symplocos) leaves are used as a mordant in dyeing to fix the colouring matter. Indigo plant leaves are fermented for two weeks, and then passed through acidic ash water. - Lac: Jatsho (Lacifer lacca) is an organic dye that produces colours ranging from pink to deep red. Lac is boiled in water until it becomes sticky dough. The pulp is mixed with roasted wheat and allowed to ferment for 10 days. The selected yarn is then put into the boiling mixture until the colour gets absorbed. Churoo (Phyllanthusemblica) is used as a fixating element in dye. - Madder: Dried stems and leaves of madder called tsoe (Rubia cordifolia) are chopped into small pieces. This material is boiled together with the yarn to produce several colours ranging from pink to deep red. It is good for dyeing raw silk, cotton and wool. Madder can be preserved in dry place for years. The ripe berries of berberis, locally called kepatsang (Berberis aristata) are used as a source of red colour, while the barks of nut of the walnut tree can be used to obtain orange colour in woollen yarns. - Pangtse: Leaves from pangtse shing (Symplocos paniculata) are gathered from the forest, which can be used fresh or dried, to make yellow colour .Pangtse leaves are boiled in water along with woollen yarns. The yarn is then allowed to drip. Sometimes, yung ga (Curcuma longa) or turmeric is also used to obtain a bright yellow colour. Lemon, also called churoo (Emblica officinalis), variety of other berries, herbs, plants, and roots are used along with alum mordant to boost colours in the yarn. However, since dyed yarns from India are available at cheaper price, only a few Bhutanese weavers practise the tradition of natural dyeing processes these days.