The phrase in Dzongkha literally means ‘seated in the rows’ whereby participants are seated in rows at the ceremony, which is called zhugdre phunsun tshogpa. The zhugdre ceremony originates from the tantric teachings of Buddhism and has been adopted to be performed during happy and auspicious occasions. Phunsum tshogpa means grace, glory and wealth combined to represent the three essences of happiness. The ceremony begins with a general invocation to the higher beings that have helped shape the destiny of the kingdom and made it a land of peace and tranquility. Their powers and blessings are sought for the acquisition of the triple attributes of grace, glory and wealth. The ceremony is held during important functions to mark such occasions as promotion, marriages, visits of high dignitaries and consecration and inaugural functions for new buildings and enterprises. For the zhugdre ceremony, participants are seated in order of rank and seniority. The dignitary who is being honoured sits at the head of the row, usually facing all the participants. Once everyone is settled, different items of offerings are made first to the shrine and then to the dignitaries and participants. The first offering comprises the sweet root known in Bhutan as droem (in Sanskrit,kesar) and fragrant saffron water (drizang) and tea with saffron rice. This is followed by the offering of marchang and chagep (token money), and other food items such as zhugdre offering. Zhugdre begins with doma (betel nut) and paney (betel leaf ) and then a fruit that grows on a tree high up from the ground to signify the importance of the occasion. The number of items can range from 11 to 21 or as many as can be afforded in terms of time and resource, but they must end in an odd number and with a hard item such as walnut or chugo (dried cheese) to signify indestructibility by malignant spirits. Prayers are recited while the offerings are being distributed. In Bhutan, the beginning of zhugdre ceremony dates back to 1616 when Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyal, arriving from Tibet, was received with a zhugdre ceremony by Lam Druk Namgyal of the Obtsho family at a place called Lebnathang in Gasa District. Then at the consecration of Punakha Dzong, an elaborate zhugdre phunsum tshogpa was performed and the ceremony gained immense popularity thereafter. In order to receive what is being served during the occasion, participants are expected to bring their own phop (bowl) and torey (small piece of cloth, usually white, to receive food items) to the ceremony to receive what is being served during the occasion. The final stage of the zhugdre ceremony, known as trashi moelam, is a prayer for the good health, wellbeing and prosperity of the dignitaries and those present on the occasion. It is designed to help guests accumulate merits in order to attain the highest qualities of which man is capable, in this way benefiting not only those present on the occasion but also all sentient beings.

"Tattoo" a tattoo on the body that uses a needle or a sharp metal with black or red ink to permanently mark on skin. In Cambodia, tattooing on the body is a popular tradition, especially among the army and martial arts practitioners. For them, this tattoo is not for decoration, but a combination of magic to protect themselves in battle. People who know how to get tattoos are usually shaman may be respected elders, or may even be monks who know how to teach magic from their fathers or teachers. Traditionally, almost 100% of the students (who come to get tattoos) are men. It is rare to see women getting tattoos, as mentioned above, most people who get tattoos likely are soldiers or martial art practitioners. Tattooing is done at a shaman's house or at a pagoda if the tattoo artist is a monk because there are altars in those places. They can get a tattoo on any day, but it is believed that getting a tattoo on a holy day or a full moon is even better. The sacrificial offerings for getting tattoos included chom, mlu, betel nut, cigarette, candle, incense sticks, flowers, perfume, white skirt, money, and so on. Before getting a tattoo, the student must state his/her intention to get the tattoo so that the shaman can decide which Balinese to cast. Most of the Balinese chosen for tattooing are self-defense devices, such as bullet-proofing armor, stealth, non-cutting, non-burning, anti-witchcraft, and anti-demon and charms or commercial charms which is Youn Moha Niyum, and so on. During the tattooing process, both the shaman and the student must meditate and concentrate to avoid making mistakes, otherwise, it will be difficult to erase. Not only that, students have to pray constantly to absorb Balinese. As for the shaman, he also recited the Bali word for tattoo. The ink used for the tattoo is extracted from battery ink (some burn car tyres or motorbike inner tubes to make charcoal) and mix it with wine or sugar cane juice. Tiger milk is even more special. The most advanced tattoo artist, would simply draw a line on your body and design the tattoo right away. But those who are not so good at it, need to draw the tattoo first before putting the prepared ink on the drawing. To prevent perspiration, they apply a small amount of powder over the tattoo site. In case the tattoo is complicated and cannot be completed in a day, they have to wait until the skin recover before the tattoo can be continued. After getting the tattoo, you have to recite the blessing immediately without any offerings, just light incense sticks to commemorate the shaman. But if the students want to prepare the offerings again, they can prepare a bowl of water scented with good smell flower or just with perfume smell is enough. There is no need to add any offerings more than this. After the blessing, the teacher should tell the students what to refrain from. That can vary from shaman to shaman. Some people are forbidden to eat taro, banana tree, dog meat or walk under cloth lines, under a house, or under a carambola tree. It is believed that if a student does not respect others, he or she may become insane. If so, they have to invite the tattoo shaman to come and pray for the student to recover. Nowadays, there is a new types of tattoos to beautify the body, not to protect oneself, and even women like to get tattoos. Such tendencies may be influenced by foreign factors. The tattoo is not a Roub Yant, it has all kinds of tattoos to suit your tastes. As for the tattoo, there is no need to pick a time, there is no need to prepare, there is no need to recite magic when getting a tattoo and there is no need to do anything.

"Lacquer" is a material composed of resin from (Kreol Tree), the last resin, water resin, and ash palm leave. That is why we sometimes hear the composition called "Mareak lacquer". Lacquer has been used since ancient times, as there are sculptures and inscriptions describing the use of this lacquer. For example, temple inscriptions. Kork Poti (K, 814), the inscription in Kampong Thom (K. 444), and the inscription of Prasat Chi Kreng (K. 168). Apart from being used for painting luxury and auspicious objects such as “Tork” wooden or golden plate used for holding valuable objects, “Tang Rong” wedding boxes, betel nut and leave boxes, and other everyday items, lacquers are also used to decorate crowns and masks for royal ballet and Lakhon Khol. That is why to this day, although the decoration on the mask of the dance is not made of lacquer, it is still called "mask lacquer". In general, the lacquer masks that are produced often have a giant mask, monkey masks, Ey sei masks, Ream masks, Preah Leak masks, or other animal masks, all of which are used in classical and Khol dance. According to the traditional method, in order to get the mask for the dancer, the clay is first kneaded into the desired shape, then applied glue on paper one layer at a time until another layer is thick enough. Next, left it to dry before removing the sample. However, this type of lacquer can only be used once or twice because the clay mold is easily damaged. After 1960, Mr. On Sok, a professor of "Khmok-Smach" at the School of Fine Arts, came up with the idea of making a mold from cement that can be used for a longer period than the one made of clay. When the mask sample is dried, you need to start gluing paper on it, but before gluing you need to soak the mask with water first to make it easier to peel off. Then use a piece of parchment paper to cover the mask and crumble another paper to glue on it with 10 layers but if the mask is small, it will be glued only 6 layers. The glue known as (Bay Marn is made by cooking rice flour with water). Let the mask dry before peeling, gluing, and sewing. When the mask is completely dried, start drawing ornament details of the mask such as Kbang, crown, ears or called (Jhon Trojeak) all of which are made by the lacquer. To make it you will need to boil Mareak resin, last resin, water resin and ash palm leave together then pour it into Kbach mold and let it cool before using it to glue on the mask. Then apply a layer of tan paint before applying gold foil on the lacquer. In the past, the molds were carved on marble, but later wax was added and cemented instead. The next step is to paint the mask according to the characters and then use a small brush to cut the strands into eyebrows, mustache, ears, and neck. Lastly, holes are pierced in the eyes and nostrils for the performer to see and breathe. Nowadays, traditional mask lacquer making is very rare as raw materials are becoming more and more difficult to find, and lacquer masks are sold at high prices, making it difficult for artists to buy and use them. Therefore, most of the dances that artists wear today are paper ornaments instead of lacquer.

Noken is a knotted net bag or woven bag made from wood fibre or leaves, sometimes coloured and decorated. Noken is a traditional handcraft of all communities of Papua and West Papua Provinces, Indonesia. The day-to-day function of large size noken is for carrying plantation produce, catch from the sea or lake, wood, babies, small animals, shopping, etc., and for hanging at home to store things. Small size noken is for carrying personal effects such as betel nut, food, books, etc. Noken may be used to cover the head or body. For nearly all (275/311) respondents, noken is an accessory to their traditional dress, and according to most (290/311) is used in traditional ceremonies or celebrations, such as marriage proposals, marriage ceremonies, initiation of children, appointment of community leaders, welcoming guests and for keeping sacred heirlooms.. Among mountain communities, noken had been given along with other presentations to make peace between disputing parties. Drs. H. Rahimin Katjong, Deputy Governor of West Papua, recalled wearing a small noken containing betel nut etc at the time of his appointment as a traditional community leader at Fak Fak, West Papua. Nearly all (276/311) respondents explained that noken is used by all age groups, and most (282/311) observed that noken is used by both sexes. As soon as babies learn to walk, their mothers give them a small noken containing food such as sweet potatoes, thus instilling the habit of carrying one’s own needs, which may also be used to help others, inside a noken which is always close at hand. Three quarters of respondents (235/311) said that noken is generally made by women-- ”the Mamas of Papua”--usually adults according to most respondents (250/311). Women thus play a special role in safeguarding noken culture. At Epouto village in Paniai District, we found male orchid-noken craftsmen. Asmat community men also make noken. Most craftspersons make noken in their spare time from agriculture, fishing, and household duties, though some make noken full time. Noken making goes on yearround, but will increase in times leading up to traditional festivals. The method of making noken varies between communities. A basic outline is as follows. Branches or stems or bark of certain small trees or shrubs are cut, sometimes heated over a fire, and soaked in water for some days. After soaking, only wood fibre remains. The Dani/Hugula in Wamena peel bark from sticks of certain trees and then beat the sticks till only fibres remain. The wood fibre is dried, and then spun with the palm of the hand on the thigh of the craftsperson to make a strong thread or string, which is sometimes coloured using natural dyes. This string is knotted by hand to make net bags with various patterns and sizes. The same technique is used to make vests, hats, belts, etc.. In Paniai District we find noken interwoven with special decoration made from fibres from yellow, brown and black. orchid stems. Besides knotting, there are communities which make noken by weaving tree bark, wood fibre, pandan leaf, young sago leaf, or grass from swamps. Some select grasses with contrasting colours (Inanwatan, Metemani, Kais and Kokoda (Imeko) communities). Maybrat community craftspersons colour the fibres with natural colours. The fibres, leaves or grass are woven in various attractive patterns with symbolic meanings. To make noken requires great manual skill, care, artistic sense and inner satisfaction. Craftspersons often make noken while singing traditional songs of Papua. To become proficient in making noken takes up to several months of informal training. A skilled noken craftsperson will be much appreciated within her (or his) community. The diversity of making, wearing and use of noken continues to develop and be recreated as the response of the people of Papua to nature and their environment.

Indonesia 2012

The Pottery Making Craft of the Cham people in Bau Truc Village, Phuoc Dan town, Ninh Phuoc district, Ninh Thuan province is a pottery production craft village with a long tradition and is typical not only in Vietnam but also in Southeast Asia. Bau Truc Pottery has existed since the end of the 12th century until now, this is considered one of the very few ancient pottery villages in Southeast Asia that still retains the primitive production method from thousands of years ago. The Traditional Pottery Making of the Cham in Bàu Trúc Village is done by hand, with the main materials being clay and sand taken from the village. The Traditional Pottery Making process of the Cham people includes many interconnected stages. The first is choosing and taking the soil. The treatment of the soil before making pottery determines the quality and efficiency of the product after firing. After taking the soil, people break it into small pieces to filter out the impurities, taking only the yellow clay and then incubating it to keep it soft. Taking a sufficient amount of clay, the Cham woman gracefully kneads it until it becomes soft, then places it on a large jar to create a block. The ceramic product is completely handmade, “shaped by hand, without a turntable.” The artisan walks backwards around the pottery-shaping table and uses the unique Cham pottery-shaping technique of straight strokes (different from the horizontal strokes in pottery villages that use turntables). After that, they use a “circle” to brush around the body of the pottery, then use a wet cloth to wrap around their hands, and rub the outside of the pottery until it is shiny. Next comes the step of decorating the pattern. After shaping, the product is left in the shade for 24 hours, then rubbed thinly and continued to dry for another 7 days until completely dry, before being fired. Thanks to this, the product will be “ripe” thoroughly and will not crack. The product is fired in the open air after being crafted. Depending on the conditions of sunlight and wind, combined with the process and technique of spraying colors (extracted from cashew nut oil, dong tree ...) will produce products with characteristic colors such as red-yellow, pink-red, gray-black, strange and beautiful brown streaks, clearly showing the ancient Cham culture. Products serving daily life, decoration and beliefs, religions such as: ceramic vases, tea sets, animals, reliefs ... Natural colors through the firing and incubation process. Each Cham ceramic product shows the style, craftsmanship, and ingenuity of each craftsman. In addition to household ceramic products, Bau Truc ceramic craft also promotes the development of decorative ceramics, fine art ceramics, souvenir ceramics with aesthetic content, giving high economic value such as: decorative ceramic lamps, night lights, flower vases, water bottles, teapots, vases, water towers, .... The Traditional Pottery Making of the Cham in Bàu Trúc Village contains the secrets and ingenuity of the craftsmen, creating products imbued with the cultural identity of the Cham people. The Pottery Making Craft of the Cham people in Bau Truc Village plays an important role in the economic, cultural and social life. Pottery products are indispensable in the daily life of each family and in the cultural beliefs of the Cham community. With its unique values, the Traditional Pottery Making of the Cham in Bàu Trúc Village has been recognized by the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism as a National Intangible Cultural Heritage (in 2017), and this Heritage has also been listed by UNESCO in the List of "Intangible Cultural Heritage in Need of Urgent Safeguarding" (in 2022).

Viet Nam 2022

Thagzo or the art of weaving is one of the oldest and widely used skills that have been practised for ages. The all-encompassing use of textiles represents prestige, artistic skills, discipline, determination, familial sentiments, tangible form of asset, and expressions of devotion towards the dharma. Bhutanese textiles are the product of knowledge and skills developed and nurtured over centuries of experiences and family traditions. Our textiles are valued and renowned for their richness of colour, sophistication and variation of patterns, including the intricate fibre preparation, dyeing, weaving, and embroidery techniques. This rich and complex art of weaving is an inseparable part of our culture and history. Today, the wide availability of imported fibres and dyes are transforming the palette, textures, and surface qualities of the clothes produced. There are more than eleven types of yarns and dyes including the five main colours (white, yellow, red, green and blue) and six subsidiary colours (orange, dark green, light yellowish green, pink, light white, blue and black). These different colours are woven in accordance with different designs and patterns. Women from central and eastern regions of Bhutan are famous for their weaving skills and each region produces their own specialty. a. Weaving with Designs and Patterns: Every textile product has a name that expresses its particular combination of colour, design, pattern and fibre. Weaving pattern is either stripes - vertical for men, and horizontal for women in cotton, silk or wool. Required extra designs are made by adding warp threads. Patterns like the vajra (thunderbolt), the swastika, the tree or the wheel, each has symbolic meanings. Although the symbols used in Bhutanese textiles are primarily of geometric nature, they also have deep religious meanings. Some common geometric symbols include the dorje (Vajra), the drame (nets), the phenphenma (butterflies), the phub (Kiliya), the yudrung (Swastika), and the shinglo (leaves). The drame or the eternal knot is a classic Buddhist symbol. The phenphenma is a symbol of butterfly and the eight-pointed star, while the dorje or the thunderbolt represents the indestructible powers of Buddhism. The phub or the rainbow is a triangle pattern in successive rainbow colours. When dorje symbol is incorporated within the phub symbol, the pattern becomes dorje\u0002phub. The shinglo symbol is used mostly on the royal and noble family dresses since this symbol is the most difficult to weave. The shinglo symbol represents the “tree of life”. The therpochay ( Jana chagri) or the China Wall pattern is usually seen next to the phub design on kiras. The therpochay symbol is believed to have been derived from the designs on Chinese brocade. The yudrung portrays the crossroads where the four directions meet. A yudrung represents the balancing forces of the universe, when rotating. The yudrung is an ancient pattern and its epicentre is considered a spiritual place. Yudrung is depicted on the royal thrikheb as the centre most design. Bhutanese weavers usually weave two types of textiles; the plain woven meaning kar chang, and the pattern woven textile called metochem. These are described below. a.1. Karchang: The plain woven textiles include pangtse, mathra, sethra, adang mathra, shardang thara, and pe sar. Plain woven clothes are worn at home or work since they are cheaper than the pattern-woven clothes. Mathra (red pattern) is a varicolored plaid woven on a maroon or red field, sometimes woven with stripes (khaja) at the edges. Sethra (gold pattern) is a plaid weave usually with yellow or orange field as the dominant colour. Sethra has two popular colour combinations; red with black or blue plaid on a white field; and yellow, white and black on an orange field. Sethra dokhana consists of black colour in it while buechapgi sethra does not contain black. Thara has horizontal stripes with white as a dominant field. Shardang thara has multicoloured stripes while Samkhongma have narrow red-and-blue stripes, and Mondre which has a similar pattern to Samkhongma is worn mainly by older people in rural areas. Kamtham Jadrima is a striped textile with colours of the rainbow. Kamtham thara consists of simple warp stripes or plaids, which are gifted to a religious person. Pesar (new design) is a modern innovation with small patterns in striped plain cloth. Yu tham or the country cloth which is made of wild silk or cotton is very popular in the rural areas. Kawley is a completely black fabric of wool, which is believed to have healing properties. a.2. Meto Chem: Aikapur and Ku shu thara are the two specific kinds of pattern-woven textiles. Pattern-woven clothes are considered special, and are valued and saved for special occasions like festivals, marriages and for New Year celebrations. Bhutanese weavers weave many different types of clothes with intricate designs such as leaves, birds, trees and other animal patterns. These are briefly explained below. Aikapur: Aikapur is a textile woven of cotton or silk, and appears to be embroidered. Aikapur has double faced pattern bands called hor which alternate with rows of plain weave; with always an odd number of legs ‘kangpa’ or cross hatches. A textile is referred to as a b-sampa (with three legs; b-napa (with five legs); b-zumpa (with seven legs); b-gupa (with nine legs); b-songhthurpa (with eleven legs); and b-songsampa (with thirteen legs). Aikapur is differentiated by the colour of the background thread, and the supplementary thread used. The common colours used in aikapur are: dromchu chema, literally meaning ‘little boxes’, with red, green, yellow, and white pattern bands. Mentse mathra is a material with a yellow base, and with red and green stripes. Montha has a blue or black background with red pattern bands between colourful stripes. Lungserma has green and red pattern bands on a yellow background. Shinglo or ‘tree of life’ patterns made on the fabric are used to assess the quality of an aikapur. The delicate branches and leaves of these trees are inspected when judging the quality of a textile. Kushu Thara: Kushu thara used to be considered aristocratic and the most prestigious dress for women. Ku shu thara is woven from vegetable dyed cotton and raw silk (bura) or entirely from silk. Ku shu thara has spectacular brocade design which take up to a year to weave. Ku shu thara is always embellished on a white base, and a similar kira with a blue or black background is called ngosham .Sapma, the continuous weft patterns, and tingma, the alternative weft patterns are used as base pattern for kushuthara, ngosham or shinglochem. Shinglochem can be either a gho or a kira, woven with alternate rows of warp pattern bands. b. Weaving Materials: Bhutanese produce fibres such as raw cotton, wool, nettle fibre, yak hair and bura (raw silk). The most expensive and the most valued fibre in Bhutan is raw silk. The Bhutanese do not kill the silk worms that remain inside after spinning its cocoon, but are left until they escape, which breaks the thread before it is unrolled. That is why, Bhutanese raw silk feels and looks relatively coarse compared to Indian and Chinese silk. Several types of yarn like seshu (cultivated from mulberry silk moth Bombayx mori), bura (produced by wild non-mulberry silk moth), namdru kuep (parachute silk), and varieties of silk imported from India are notable. b.1. Nettle: Nettle or stinging nettle, though now rarely used, is said to have been the original and chief fibre used by weavers in ancient Bhutan. Nettle fibre is coarse but strong and durable. That is why people in villages used it to weave sacks, bags, kurel, pagi, pakhi, bundi and tabden. Owing to its strength it is also used as bow string. Nettle is herbaceous flowering plant that grows in temperate and sub-tropical zone. The plant grows up to 2 meters in height with spiny stems and leaves and bears white to yellowish flowers. Nettle bark contains baste fibre which is strong, smooth and light. In Bhutan, nettle fibres are harvested in the months of October and November. After peeling the stems, the fibres are dried, and then cooked with ash for about 6 hours. The fibres are then washed with cold water, and beaten in order to remove the outer cover. After removing the outer cover, the fibres are dried and dyed with natural dyes. The nettle plants are shredded, and twisted into thin fibres using a drop spindle. Nettle fibres are used to weave bundi or carry bag. Bundi is usually woven with brocaded yudrung motif at the centre of the middle panel, on a white colour base. The bundi or carry bag consists of three lengths of cloth sewn together to form a square panel. Ropes on the diagonal sides of this piece are tied together to carry possessions and bedding. b.2. Wool: Yarns from yak, sheep and goat wool are spun using phang (drop spindle) and moved to a chaphang (spinning wheel). The herders of the high valleys of Merak and Sakteng weave shingka (tunic-style dresses), women’s jackets and belts. They also make hats, ropes, tents, and bags out of yak hair, and floor mats and blankets from sheep wool. The Layap women’s dress includes a black woollen jacket, a long woollen skirt, adorned with lot of jewels, which often include teaspoons. Women also wear conical bamboo hats with a bamboo spike at the top, held by beaded bands. Shingka, an ancient tunic-style textile that was woven with either a ngoshingkha (blue) or a laushingkha (red) wool base, was worn by a high lama during religious ceremonies. Char khab, woven from wool (of yak or sheep) either on a pedal loom or back strap loom is used for protection from snow, cold, and rain. It is water-resistant and an essential item for the herders in cold the region. Sephu charkhab (rain cloaks from Sephu) is a colourful textile with bands of green, blue, white and orange. Bumthang and Trongsa were known for a woollen fabric called yathra, which was used as a cover from rain and cold. In the late 1990s, farmers in Trongsa had stopped raising sheep which inevitably put an end to the practise of weaving yathra. Yathra is used as bed covers, blankets, rain cloaks, cushion covers, sofa set covers, and as jackets for both men and women. b.3. Cotton: Kershing (cotton) is used to separate the cotton seeds, and then fluff out to make it ready for spinning into yarn with the help of a wooden spindle or spinning wheel. Usually cotton woven with traditional designs on white background, chagsi pangkheb was put on laps to wipe hands before and after meals by persons of higher positions. In the early days, Bhutanese women used to put on an apron-like wear called dongkheb as a sign of respect while approaching the king or a high official. Phechung is a cotton woven carry bag woven but its usage is now limited to ceremonial receptions along with chagsi pangkheb. Thrikheb (throne cover) is a rare textile used as the King’s throne cover. It is also used for the lamas during religious ceremonies. Chephur gyaltshen (banner with frills), gyaltshen (pair of cylindrical hangings with valance), bumgho (bumpa covers), kheb and tenkheb (altar covers),phen (pair of triangular topped hangings) and chephur (a pair of cylindrical hangings) are some of the other cloth products that are used in altars and monasteries. Hingthub is a time-consuming but highly cherished textile woven for loved ones or for use by the weaver or their ‘lord’. The finer product demonstrates the dedication of the weaver. It is also used by the weaver’s family or to stitch outer attire for statues or as wall hangings. Today most of the yarns for weaving like raw silk, cotton and acrylic are imported while some of the yarn is spun and processed locally. The availability of cheap machine spun yarns from India has overtaken the local cotton cultivation. b.4. Types of Loom: There are three types of looms used by weavers in Bhutan. Traditionally pangthag was the most commonly used loom for weaving larger size garments. The smaller version of this loom called kethag is used for weaving narrow items like belts. In the 1970s, another type of loom called thri-thag (khri-thags) was adopted from India. This loom gained popularity in the growing urban centres. This later type is a horizontal loom with pedals. Each region has a speciality in terms of designs and types. Kurtoe is known for Ku shu thara, while marthra and serthra are mostly produced in Bumthang. Trashigang district is well known for weaving aikapur, while pangkheb and montha come from Kheng. b.5. Dyes: Bhutanese weavers consider the coordination of pleasing colours more important than the designs, patterns and techniques. Strong taboos are associated with the dyeing process and the weavers are very particular about colour shades. They believe that malevolent spirits, certain weather conditions, strangers or pregnant women can ruin the dye. Like the weaving techniques, the recipes for dyeing are closely guarded family secrets and the formula is usually passed down from mother to daughter. There are a number of dye-yielding plants. Weavers obtain dyes using simple methods from barks, flowers, fruits, leaves, and roots of plants, and minerals. Today, chemical or synthetic dyes called tsho-sar are easily available while the natural dye is called tsho nying. They are easily recognisable by their hue. Some of the natural dyes obtained from plants are described below. - Indigo: Shades of green, purple, blue and black are obtained from leaves of trees locally called yangshaba (Strobilanthus flaccidifolius) in Tshangla dialect. Indigo (lndigofera spp.) plants are cultivated in household gardens as a source of blue dye. Alum earths, sour fruits, and dug shing (Symplocos) leaves are used as a mordant in dyeing to fix the colouring matter. Indigo plant leaves are fermented for two weeks, and then passed through acidic ash water. - Lac: Jatsho (Lacifer lacca) is an organic dye that produces colours ranging from pink to deep red. Lac is boiled in water until it becomes sticky dough. The pulp is mixed with roasted wheat and allowed to ferment for 10 days. The selected yarn is then put into the boiling mixture until the colour gets absorbed. Churoo (Phyllanthusemblica) is used as a fixating element in dye. - Madder: Dried stems and leaves of madder called tsoe (Rubia cordifolia) are chopped into small pieces. This material is boiled together with the yarn to produce several colours ranging from pink to deep red. It is good for dyeing raw silk, cotton and wool. Madder can be preserved in dry place for years. The ripe berries of berberis, locally called kepatsang (Berberis aristata) are used as a source of red colour, while the barks of nut of the walnut tree can be used to obtain orange colour in woollen yarns. - Pangtse: Leaves from pangtse shing (Symplocos paniculata) are gathered from the forest, which can be used fresh or dried, to make yellow colour .Pangtse leaves are boiled in water along with woollen yarns. The yarn is then allowed to drip. Sometimes, yung ga (Curcuma longa) or turmeric is also used to obtain a bright yellow colour. Lemon, also called churoo (Emblica officinalis), variety of other berries, herbs, plants, and roots are used along with alum mordant to boost colours in the yarn. However, since dyed yarns from India are available at cheaper price, only a few Bhutanese weavers practise the tradition of natural dyeing processes these days.

Wood carving and wood product manufacture among the Kyrgyz originated in ancient times. An example is the manufacture of wooden parts of the yurt, komuz, which have become the pinnacle of the handicraft creativity of the people. Modern travelers are very familiar with the Kyrgyz yurt, construction of which is made only of wood by the true masters. Wood items decorated with carvings and paintings have been harmoniously fit into the complex of interior of the yurt. These are chests ‘sandyk’, wooden bases on which felt mats, carpets and bedding items are placed; coffrets for food, cloth and horse gear hangers ‘ala bakan’; boxes for dishes, stirrer for kymyz ‘pishkek’, biler for drinks and other liquids, wooden blocks for lamps – ‘chirak paya’. Woodworks are done by the men named as ‘jygach usta’. Materials used for different woodworks depend on elasticity or firmness of the wooden species: birch, cottonwood, sump-weed, juniper or nut-tree. They are cut easily and flexible enough to get desired shape. Instruments used in woodworks are: saw, adze, single bitted axe, knife, hewing with blade in the form of groove, hatchet with plane, wood auger, strop used to make walls of the yurt.

Wood carving is widespread in Kazakhstan as a traditional craft. The yurt’s frame is entirely made of wood, including the shanyrakh (cylindrical top part), uykh (poles that are embedded in the shanyrakh and fixed to keregeh, or greedwall) and sykhyrlauikh (doors). The internal furniture is made of wood as well. including abdireh or sandykh (chests), tosekaghash or keruet (bed), besyk (cradle), assadal (buffet), kebezheh (kitchen cabinet) and dastarkhan (low table). Kitchenware is partly made of wood, including kubyi (butter making jar), tegeneh (cups for kumis, fermented mare’s milk), ozhau (ladle), tostaghan (bowls), saptiyayak (water dippers), astau (bastau, a large plate for boiled meat) and tabakh (plate). As well, special wooden stands (zhukh ayakh) are carved for protection against humidity. Wood carving is also used for production of musical instruments, souvenirs and horse-saddles (yer). Wood carving is widespread in Kazakhstan as a traditional craft. The yurt’s frame is entirely made of wood, including the shanyrakh (cylindrical top part), uykh (poles that are embedded in the shanyrakh and fixed to keregeh, or greedwall) and sykhyrlauikh (doors). The internal furniture is made of wood as well. including abdireh or sandykh (chests), tosekaghash or keruet (bed), besyk (cradle), assadal (buffet), kebezheh (kitchen cabinet) and dastarkhan (low table). Kitchenware is partly made of wood, including kubyi (butter making jar), tegeneh (cups for kumis, fermented mare’s milk), ozhau (ladle), tostaghan (bowls), saptiyayak (water dippers), astau (bastau, a large plate for boiled meat) and tabakh (plate). As well, special wooden stands (zhukh ayakh) are carved for protection against humidity. Wood carving is also used for production of musical instruments, souvenirs and horse-saddles (yer). In forest-rich Eastern and Northern Kazakhstan, hardwood trees are used for carving, including red birch, maple, black or red alder, ash, nut tree, and oak. In Southern Kazakhstan, trees like elm, nut tree, pear, acacia, elaeagnus (djygyda), plane tree (chinara) are used for carving. As well, tree roots and knots are used. In South-East of Kazakhstan, elm, apple, nut tree, and buckthorn are usually used by woodcarvers. Table and chair legs, and some yurt parts are usually carved from pine, aspen or poplar. Other hardwood used for carving includes mulberry tree, and in softwood, juniper. Every wood carved product is decorated with ornament. Pattern and design of wood carved objects are also based on the balance of foreground and background, vertical symmetry, importance of central piece and border pattern. Traditional woodcarving includes several techniques and cuts, such as contour, relief and three-sided hollow carving. Relief carving is used for decorating chests, cabinets, doors, beds and kitchenware. Painted relief carving is used for decorating yurt doors and buildings of worship. Three-sided hollow craving is used for making geometric patterns. Cutout is mostly used for floral ornaments. To make dishes water resistant, they are soaked with boiled animal fat. Carved objects can be combined with paintings. Usually the background is unpainted, while the foreground is painted red, blue, green and yellow. Objects can also be decorated with inlaid bones, silver and other metals. Metallic details can be decorated with precious and semi-precious stones.