Bibaha/Vivah has been in practice for hundreds of years with its first documentation in one of the Hindu epics. As per the epic, the first official marriage was celebrated between Lord Ram and Sita (Hindhu gods). It was also practiced by RISHIS, the great saints who existed in the Ganges valley civilization, before it reached down to the common people. This practice came down in line through religious texts and personals, in the eight different types mentioned above. The Bibaha/Vivah system then spread into other parts of the world with migrating people.

Traditional felt carpets represent one of the identity codes of the Kyrgyz people, and their recognizable, ethnographic features are an integral part of Kyrgyz cultural heritage. Kyrgyz people traditionally produce two types of felt carpets: Ala-kiyiz and Shyrdaks. Knowledge, skills, diversity, the semantics of ornaments, and the ceremonies of creating carpets, are all important cultural components. They provide Kyrgyz people with a sense of identity and continuity. Both types of felt carpets are included into the set of a traditional bride’s dowry. Shyrdaks sometimes are gifted for house-warming parties. The making of Kyrgyz felt carpets is inseparably linked with the everyday lifestyle of nomads, who used felt carpets to warm and decorate their homes. Ala-kiyiz are usually placed in the kitchen and the entrance area of the house. Shyrdaks are more complicated to produce and are more expensive, thus they are placed at the honourable part of the dwelling. The felt carpets ornaments reflect their creators’ outlooks and ideas about the Earth, water, mountains, celestial bodies and fertility.

Kyrgyzstan 2012

Tush kiyiz represents intensely embroidered ornamental carpet used to decorate the house. It is of a rectangular shape and embroidered on different types of fabrics. Initially it was used for insulating purposes in the yurt. Most probably, the first wall carpets were made of felt, which is evident from its name: tush – meaning “outer” or “in front”, and kiyiz – meaning “felt.” tush kiyiz is an example of Kyrgyz embroidery. Embroidery is one of the most ancient and most wide-spread crafts of Kyrgyz people. During the centuries Kyrgyz women have developed their own ornamental style, which is dominated by vegetative and zoomorphic motifs such as the ornaments of leafs, branches, flowers as well as round and spiral patterns. Kyrgyz embroidery leaves a lot of room for artistic expression and improvisation. Some Kyrgyz women embroider without stencils based on their own memory and imagination.

Today, piled weaving is vividly demonstrated in the patterned piled carpets that are distinguished by their quality and durability. Sheep, caprine or camel hair is used for base of the carpets. Piled carpets are original and colorful as are other items of the applied and decorative arts of the Kyrgyz. Kyrgyz piled carpets, are weaved on a simple horizontal machine – ‘dyukoun’. Instruments of masters also include wooden comb – ‘tokmok’, which is used to nail picks and piles, a knife – to cut piled threads, and scissors – to trim the piles. Geometrical shapes are prevailing in the Kyrgyz piled carpets. These are: squares with jogged edges or elongated endings – ‘omurtka’, triangles – ‘tumarcha’, cross shaped figures – ‘chaidosh’, simple or stepped rhombs – ‘it taman’, star shaped forms – ‘jyldyz’ as well as various octangulars and etc. Plant and horn shaped motifs are also present in the ornaments such as ‘toguz doubou’ (nine hills), ‘alma kouchout’ (apple pattern) and etc.

Kurak is a Kyrgyz craft of quilting. Quilting is a process of sewing pieces of fabric together, which at the end create a common pattern. Pieces of fabric, leather and felt of various size and color are used for quilting. Kyrgyz people say that kurak is a renewal of the old, creation of something big from something small. Nowadays, kurak is still very popular craft in the Kyrgyz Republic. Quilted items are always included into a bride’s dowry. Many household items such as blankets, pillow cases, wedding curtains, table cloths, spoon bags, tea bags and other items are quilted. The quilting techniques can be divided into two categories: 1.\tquilting that uses triangular and rectangular pieces of fabric of different color arranged in a way that creates sophisticated patterns; 2.\tquilting done with thin strips of fabric of different color. One of the most wide-spread patterns is black triangle on a white background called tumracha (small amulet) or turna (crane). Another ancient ornament used in quilting is a black square put on one of the inside angles of a white square. This ornament is called boto köz (baby camel’s eye). There are more sophisticated patterns. For example, kattama kurak (layered quilting) is a square with triangles going around it. A red square and white triangles make a pattern called alma kurak (apple quilting). A square with diagonals made out of lozenges and triangles is called scissor quilting. It is used to decorate various pillows and cushions.

Sumolok is a ritual dish cooked by the entire community for spring holiday Nooruz. Sumolok is a brown, nutritious, sweet paste-like liquid dish. Children like eating it very much. Sumolok is cooked for 20-24 hours. Firstly, the oil is heated in a big pot (kazan), then the flower is fried in it and the first batch of mushed sprouts are added. When it starts getting thicker, the second and then third batches are added. When it starts boiling, it is put on slow fire for 5-6 hours. When it seems ready, the fire is put off and sumolok is left under its own steam. In the morning, the eldest women open sumolok and everyone looks at the surface of it. Various interesting lines form on the surface. They are used to make predictions for the coming year. When sumolok is cooled down it is served for the community members.

Tussau kessu (kaz."Tussay kessu") is one of the most common traditions and customs among the Kazakh nation, which has ethnographic features. This custom is considered one of the most significant events in the child's life. The origin of the custom is associated with magical belief in the hidden strength of the fetters that hold back unstable steps of a toddler. And if they are cut, then the toddler begins to walk confidently. This belief is found among many people of the world. In particular, it has been preserved to this day among the people of Central Asia. There is another belief, that if toddler takes his first steps and reached the family not stumbling then he would be very capable. The main purpose of giveaways is association of aul neighbors, relatives, friend around the principles of humanity and respect. Gifts are also given to the toddler. If he is a boy, then a horse might be given as a gift.

Jewellery art (kaz. 'zergerlyk') - is knowledge and skills in the field of traditional Kazakh art manufacturing of silverware. Since ancient times, there were produced a variety of silver jewelry: rings, earrings, necklaces, bracelets, pendants, buckles and much more. Especially highly prized precious silver vessels, such as jugs, bowls, mugs, decorated with engraved images. Archeological findings suggest that Kazakh people achieved a higher level in the development of jewellery making. Chylik findings were made using such techniques as stamping, engraving, true grain, incrustation (VII-V century BC); Issyk finding included “Golden warrior” (IV-III century BC); Berel kurgan findings (IV-VI century BC) from Eastern Kazakhstan are the testimony of a unique “animal style” in jewellery making. Jewellery is mainly made with silver. This craft is widespread across Kazakhstan but each region has its specifications concerning technique and design. Jewelry sets are made for men, women, and children; as well jewellery making is used for decorating musical instruments, household items, weaponry and horse gears; some made for rituals, others have symbolic or sacred value. Zergerlyk used for making details in men’s clothing, rider’s gear, horse riding gear, for example, horse equipment (er-tuman), traditional belts (beldyk, kyseh beldyk and kyemer belbeu), sword and knives’ handles and scabbards, powder flask (okhshantai), snuffboxes (nasybai). Women’s decorative items include forehead jewellery (shekelyk), braid jewellery (shashbau), earrings (syrgha), necklaces (alkhah, onirzhiyek, tumar), bracelets and cuffs (bilezyk), rings (zhuzyk), belt buckles (khapsyrmah), buttons (tyuime), personal hygiene items (tyss tazlaghysh, khulakh tazlaghysh), tools for crafting, spindle (urshykh), thimble (oymakh). Zergers also make child’s cradle set: bessyk (cradle), shumek (tube to flow urine), syldyrmakh (rattle), yemyzik (pacifier), tumar (amulet, charm) and other items. The jewelry pieces in the form of circle, oval, triangle, half oval, rectangular, petal, peak and beak are frequently combined to make a larger piece, for example pectoral decorative items onzhyrek and alkah are made of several triangle and rectangular plates, khudaghy zhuzik (a special large double ring presented when marriage brokerage occurs) and bes-blezyk (a bracelet connected with chains with three rings). Geometric style from Western Kazakhstan is famous for large-scale decorative items that are assembled from pre-made pieces that are joined together by soldering (plates, borders, solar symbols, grain). Most common techniques include true grain, plated filigree, stamping, embossing, engraving, niello, enamel, casting, forging, and incrustation with precious and semi-precious stones. Stone (tas) are sliced flat and are called eye (koz) as they considered to be protection charms. The most popular stone is cornelian (akhykh) as it symbolizes prosperity and joy.

The art of traditional paper making in Bhutan stems from an age-old handicraft tradition whose history can be traced back to the eight century during the reign of Gyelpo Khikhar Rhathor in Bumthang?, used by monasteries for woodblock and manuscript and also for writing prayer books, says Mr. Gonpola , the only Desho paper manufacturer in Bumdeling, Tashiyangtse. It is said that Mr. Tsheten Dorji from Yangtse, Who was Dzongsungpa (Care taker) then, was trained at Bumthang. It is he who actually brought the idea of making Deysho paper to Tashiyangtse. Mr. Tsheten Dorji had trained Mr. Gonpola and a few other friends at Rigsum Gonpa in and around 1971. Daphne bholua is a deciduous and evergreen shrubs in the family Thymelaeaceae, native to Asia, Europe and North Africa. It grows at an altitude of 1700-3500m in the Himalayas and neighboring mountain ranges. It is found in pastures and grassy glades and reaches a height of about 2.5m, however some specimens reach 4m. Daphne bholua has leathery leaves and pink- white flowers with strong fragrance. In Bhutan it is used for making hand-made paper ‘deysho’. Another species of Daphne ‘Edgeworthia gardneri’ (Deykhar) is also used for making desho paper in some part of Bhutan. It is found commonly in southern part of the country. However in Bumdeling, Daphne bholua ‘Deynag’ is widely used for making Deysho paper. Daphne ‘Deynag’ can be abundantly found in places like Tarphel, Cheng, Longkhar, Sanyne, Ngalingmang, Phanteng.

Death is often considered as a great loss but not more than the fear incurred from the unnatural deaths; such as accidents from falling off a tree or death caused due to an encounter with wild animals as they strongly believe that death has been caused from dishonoring the deities or by evil spirits or by bad spells from somebody. They conduct very elaborate ceremonies to appease the spirit of the deceased and deities, especially the deceased with food and drinks so as to prevent misfortune to the surviving people. Lhops believe in the dual existence; that when death occurs, the soul, Se-hok, leaves the body and dwells in the emptiness for certain period and later joins the world of Sim-pu (death).

Needle grass (called chiy in Kyrgyz) is used for traditional handicrafts. Needle grass grows in all regions of Kyrgyzstan. Needle grass is harvested when it is ripe between 15 of August and 15 of September. If harvested too early, needle grass become fragile, if harvested too late, it becomes too stiff at the bottom. Needle grass is harvested with roots because the bottom part is the most durable and looks like a knot that prevents chiy from falling apart. Making such mats requires mastery and patience because a craftswoman needs to wrap every stem of thatch with different woolen thread. The threads must make a pattern at the end. This makes needle grass mat making especially challenging. •\tWhen harvested, needle grass is cleared of leafs and outer layer and then dried on a sun. Depending on a size of a future mat, needle grass is cut accordingly. •\tMats can be prepared manually or by using a special machine. Self-made weaving machine consist of two vertical poles with a hanger at the top. One perpendicular pole is put on top of those hangers. •\tThe perpendicular pole has notches to hang threads. Then, weaving threads are wrapped around two equally heavy stones. •\tStones are hang in such a way that they are located on a different side in relation to a perpendicular pole. •\tNeedle grass stems are a placed in such a way that top of one stem lies next to the bottom of another stem. A craftswomen takes stones and moves them back and forth in such a way that threads wrap each stem creating a pattern. •\tWhen weaving is done, the fluffy edges of needle grass are cut even. The bottom part of the mat is not cut. The edges of mats are strengthened by a zigzag weaving. There are needle grass mats both with and without ornament.

According to documents from the Department of Culture and Tourism, the Yao people in Bac Kan province have the second largest population, accounting for nearly 18% of the total population of the province; divided into 2 dialect-using groups, "Kềm miền" and "Kềm mùn", including 3 groups, 4 branches and 8 branches. Each group has its own cultural identity, especially in terms of costumes. With their sophistication in the way they dress, Red Yao women create their own unique features in the way they decorate their costumes. The costumes of Red Yao women in Bac Kan include two types: regular clothes and formal clothes. The daily casual clothes have two main colors, blue and black, including a headscarf, shirt, bib, belt and are usually not embroidered with patterns. The formal clothes worn on wedding days or festivals are cut, sewn, embroidered more elaborately and meticulously, with a split chest, embroidered shirt placket, and fastened with silver buttons. The two chests of the shirt are decorated with many red woolen flowers in a V shape. The back collar is decorated with many colored beads. The two trouser legs are embroidered with patterns from the knee down. The belt is made of two pieces of cloth about two spans long, embroidered with patterns and beautifully decorated at both ends. The main color of the Red Yao ethnic group's ceremonial costume is red, because they believe that red brings happiness and luck. The Red Yao ethnic group's costume is one of the most richly and diversely decorated with patterns among the ethnic groups in Vietnam, expressed through the art of decorative patterns on the costume. The decoration on the ao dai and both sides of the flaps is attached with beaded strings with red and yellow tassels at the ends. The sleeves have a strip of embroidered patterns or made of green fabric. The belt is made of indigo fabric, embroidered with many patterns of plants, tiger paw prints, surrounded by green cat paw prints, flowers, stars, pine trees, and children. The trouser legs are mainly decorated with horizontal bands of patterns from the hem up to the trouser legs. The embroidered skirt is a red strip of fabric, in the middle there are two rows of white sawtooth patterned fabric, below is a row of red, blue, yellow tassels. The bib is embroidered and decorated with bright red, yellow, blue thread, and silver. Around the neck of the bib, along the front of the bib are decorated with silver flowers, rectangular silver pieces, one after another, handcrafted. Using manual techniques: embroidery, fabric patching, silver attachment, processing color and shape layouts..., the Red Yao people create different motifs to decorate their costumes. The types of decorative patterns are diverse: images of trees and grass, tiger footprints, cat footprints, stars, images of children, sawtooth patterned fabric, tassels... The art of decorating patterns on costumes contains many aesthetic, religious and spiritual values, demonstrating the ingenuity, sophistication, and creativity of the Red Yao women in Ngoc Phai (Cho Don-Bac Kan). With the efforts to preserve the national cultural identity of the Red Yao people, Ngoc Phai commune, Cho Don district, the Art of making costume decorative patterns of the Red Yao was recognized by the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism as a National Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2018.