The Taumako voyaging arts include a wind-position based, systematic model of wayfinding, complex swell patterns not yet reported for other traditions, weather modification, and ancestral lights that signal the direction and distance of land. In this paper I observe that transmission of the ancient voyaging arts has promoted cultural fulfillment, and can result in greater resiliency and sustainability once a basic skill levels have been mastered and partnerships between islands have been re-established.

Nepal is a diverse country with 103 ethnic communities and 93 spoken languages and dialects. Besides the lan\u0002guages, each ethnic community has their own lifestyle, food habits, traditions, rituals, and festivals. The country, which covers roughly 147,000 square kilometers, has varied climate, terrain, and biodiversity. These factors also contribute to the diversity of food, culture, and lifestyle. New Year is one example of a festival for which each community has their own celebration. This is despite Nepal as a nation following the historical Bikram Sambat calendar, which currently is in the year 2077 and celebrates its New Year around the month of April. All the formal events of the country and offices follow Bikram Sambat.

Singapore is a tiny Southeast Asian nation-state located in a region with many ethnic groups, of which the Chinese comprise only a small percentage of the overall population. Yet, the Chinese form the majority in Singapore, living alongside a significant proportion of non-Chinese. Over many years, this has led to a Chinese Singaporean identity that is complex and ever-changing.\n\nIn 2020, the Singapore Chinese Cultural Centre launched a permanent exhibition to encourage greater appreciation of the distinctiveness of Chinese culture in Singapore through examples of food, festivals, and languages. For the exhibition title to reflect Singapore’s linguistic diversity, the curators invented a word by combining English and Mandarin—the two most widely spoken languages in Singapore. The first element of the title “Singapo” is drawn from the country’s English name while the “人” element is the Chinese character for “person” (pronounced as “ren” in Mandarin). Hence, by reading the two elements together, the exhibition title “ SINGAPO人” sounds like “Singaporean!”\n\nTo provide the context, the exhibition begins with an examination of five key historical socio-geographical aspects about Singapore that led the local Chinese community to develop differently. They comprised the legacy of 150 years of British colonial rule, its location in tropical Southeast Asia, heritage of early Chinese migrants who were mostly from the southern coastal provinces of Fujian and Guangdong, the co-existence of a relatively large proportion of non-Chinese minorities, and Singapore’s reliance on global trade and connectivity for its economic survival.\n\nThese five aspects may be summarized into three basic driving forces that have shaped and continue to shape the Chinese culture in Singapore today. Firstly, there is Chinese heritage, which the early migrants brought to Singapore. These include their values (as reflected in festivals and practices), belief systems, language, customs, and food dishes that originated from China. Secondly, there are the cultural interactions among the different southern Chinese sub-groups (dialect groups) and between the Chinese community and the other ethnic groups in Singapore. These interactions ranged from the casual, such as attending to daily chores, to deeper levels of engagement, such as inter-marriage. These led to changes and adaptations to the way of life of the local Chinese. Thirdly, the Chinese community was also affected by how Singapore was governed. Whether during the colonial period or post-independence, all governments seek to shape society to achieve certain objectives. Hence, the impact of public policies and laws on cultural development is significant.\n\nIn other words, these are the three underlying key ingredients that give the Chinese Singaporean ‘recipe’ its distinct flavor. For instance, this is reflected in the way Chinese New Year is celebrated in Singapore. Firstly, the festival is a tradition that originated in China, and as such, is part of Chinese heritage (first ingredient). Although Chinese New Year does not coincide with the new year of the Gregorian calendar used in Singapore, it is nevertheless a public holiday and held in high regard by the local Chinese because it is a festival that emphasizes family togetherness and filial piety. Secondly, Singaporeans love to eat pineapple tarts and love letters during Chinese New Year. However, these snacks did not originate from China. Rather, they were made popular by the Peranakan (local-born) Chinese who often adopted Western techniques like the baking oven, and Western ingredients such as butter in their cuisine. This type of hybrid food is an example of cultural interaction (second ingredient) at work. Thirdly, during Chinese New Year, Singaporeans enjoy attending local festive events like Chingay and River Hongbao. These are large-scale public events organized by the state or state-sponsored organizations. This is an example of public policies (third ingredient) shaping the way in which Chinese New Year is celebrated in Singapore.\n\nHence, these three ingredients, found in many overseas Chinese communities, were present in the past and continue to exist in Singapore today. The influence of each ingredient varies with time, creating complex outcomes that shape Chinese Singaporean culture.\n\nFor more information about the exhibition SINGAPO 人, please refer to the SCCC website at: https://singaporeccc.org.sg/permanent-exhibition/\n\nPhotos 1~4 : The exhibition uses both physical and digital media content to engage visitors. © Low Sze Wee

Nepal is a country of Himalayas boasting the world’s tallest peak, Mt. Everest. Here different caste people live in harmony. Each caste has its language and culture. So, no wonder about having its own New Year as well. Before jumping towards the topic, I would like to introduce the people of the Himalayas. Sherpas, Gurungs, Tamangs, etc. are the biggest ethnic groups that live nearby the Himalayas. Sherpas, who are famous as mountaineers, live in the lap of mountains. Tamangs, Gurungs, etc. are other ethnicities that live in the mountain as well as hilly areas of Nepal. Apart from owning the beautiful snow-clad mountains, these ethnic groups also have their own culture and tradition which is celebrated by the whole Nepalese.\n\nAmong them, Losar is a major festival for the Buddhists people living in the Himalayas. ‘Lo’ means ‘year’ and ‘Sar’ means ‘new’, which means “New year” in the Tibetan language. Rather than Nepal, Losar is also celebrated in Tibet and Bhutan. It is celebrated on the first day of the Lunisolar Tibetan Calendar which falls in February or March according to the Gregorian Calendar. Nepal celebrates three different Losar and is called Tamu Losar, Sonam Losar, and Gyalpo Losar. Tamu Losar is celebrated by Gurung communities, Sonam Losar is celebrated by the Tamang communities whereas Gyalpo Losar is celebrated by the Sherpa community. Even these three Losar are celebrated on different dates, the way of celebrating it is very similar due to their similar lifestyle.\n\nOn Losar day or New Year, all people of the community wear their traditional costumes and gather in the square and celebrate it merrily. They sing their traditional songs, dance in their traditional style. They even celebrate by holding competitions for fun. Like all other festivals we celebrate, Losar is also a festival of family and relatives gathering. On this very day, traditional food is served to all guests who visit their homes. They even perform ritual activities to get relief from bad lucks and they also visit the Buddhist temple and chant their prayer for the prosperity of their family. During the festival, people forget the past thing and forgive each other by exchanging gifts. So, all can have their fresh new start with social harmony and with a new hope.\n\nThis day is a very important day for the young generations as they are learning not only their culture but also songs and dances too. Songs and dances are taught orally at the scene itself, and children learn them. Hence there is no doubt that Losar is a living heritage, that is transmitted from one generation to another generation.\n\nBut due to the rapid change of communities in Nepal, the celebration of Losar is deducting day by day. Young people are moving to the big cities and developed countries. New generations are not as involved as they used to be before. Therefore, to protect their culture and tradition, these ethnic group peoples are doing rallies in Katmandu on Losar day. All different caste people, who celebrate Losar, gather in the rally by wearing their traditional dress performing their cultural songs and dances, and enjoying the local food. They enjoy the whole day festival by doing cultural rallies, singing and dancing as well as making new friends.\n\nTo sum it up, Losar is more than a festival of New year. It is an Intangible Cultural Heritage. This festival brings new hope to the people who celebrate it. It is directly related to the lifestyle of the community as they gather and celebrated it together. But more than that it is a living heritage when they are practicing their songs and dances orally and teaching to the coming new generations. Since the Losar festival, as well as the songs and dances in the festivals, are not recorded, it may extinct at any time. Therefore, with its cultural significance, it is truly a Cultural Heritage of Nepal that should be safeguarded as soon as possible.\n\nphoto : Dance in Tamu Lhosar © Puskapuku123

Over thousands of years, the Vietnamese have held a deep belief in the lunar calendar. Although most of today’s activities are scheduled in the Gregorian calendar, they still keep track of dates in the old way—many traditional cultural activities are organized based on the lunar calendar.\n\nThe fifteenth day of lunar July is known as Wandering Soul’s Day or “Vu Lan” Day (Parents’ Day) in Vietnam. This is Vietnam’s second largest annual traditional festival after Lunar New Year, and it is celebrated by participation in various religious rituals and humanitarian activities.\n\nCelebrations aside, lunar July brings a few fears to Vietnamese hearts too—it is also known as “Ghost Month.” Vietnamese people are very superstitious, and almost everyone believes in ghosts and spirits. Therefore, with all the hauntings, Ghost Month is thought of as an unlucky time and, it is considered a bad idea to do anything important during this period. This concept comes from folk beliefs related to Buddhism that during the first half of the month, the gates of the underworld are opened, allowing ghosts to roam freely on Earth and make trouble for the living. On the full moon, they have to return, and the gates are closed again.\n\nIn Vietnam, Wandering Soul’s Day is taken very seriously. All through Ghost Month, deceased relatives will find their way back to visit with the living. Offerings and prayers bring them back, and they will then bless their relatives. Meanwhile, “lost ghosts” that have no home, no offerings, and no prayers will wander around, lost and lonely. They may be ones without relatives, forgotten by descendants or dead without having been buried carefully. These things will make them cruel and place curses of bad luck on strangers. For that reason, the Vietnamese practice activities related to their beliefs in order to appease the ghosts, and not to upset or make them angry.\n\nVietnamese families will prepare two feasts during the fifteenth day of Lunar July. The first is offered early, usually at noon, to ancestors. The second, often offered sometime after sunset, is dedicated to the “lost ghosts.” This is the only day of the year that they can feast. Because they cannot eat proper food, the living often give the ghosts white porridge. Many people also visit temples to pray, some bring offerings and donations to feed these ghosts.\n\nIt may seem strange to most, but Wandering Soul’s Day also happens to be Vu Lan Day (Parents’ Day). Vu Lan Day began with the legend of Maudgalyayana (Buddha’s leading disciple), known as Muc Kien Lien in Vietnam. After his mother died, Muc Kien Lien, by means of his supernatural power, saw that she had been reborn as a hungry ghost in the realm of hell as a result of her evil actions in her past life. He pleaded with the Buddha to save his mother. Buddha instructed his disciple that only a combined effort by all Buddhist monks could soothe the suffering of the tormented soul. He then directed Muc Kien Lien to organize an assembly of monks so that Muc Kien Lien could make offerings for the benefit of his mother’s soul. Thus, the accumulated spiritual merits resulting from the prayers of all monks helped his mother awaken; consequently, she obtained liberation. Hence, the fifteenth day of Lunar July is when people pray for forgiveness for their parents’ misdeeds.\n\nPeople pay homage to their parents and ancestors, whether they are alive or dead. The custom is that you spend time thinking of your mother’s great heart and are thankful. People whose mothers have passed away will wear a white rose on their shirt during the day while others will have a red one. In addition, they will try to avoid killing animals and will eat only vegetarian food. They will also offer food and other items for the poor. This very simple custom is practiced widely throughout the country and is a very sacred and deeply unique mark of the Vietnamese culture.\n\nPhoto 1 : The offerings for ghosts © Hoang The Phuc\nPhoto 2 : Wearing roses in the Vu Lan Day ⓒ Hoang The Phuc

Guru Purnima, which literally translates as the day for the teachers, is a unique festival celebrated in South Asia on full moon. The full moon, the time when our natural satellite emanates its most vibrant and luminescent energies, has special significance. This unique festival is not only linked with teachers but also the social obligations we each should perform in our lifetimes. Since the festival is celebrated according to the lunar calendar, the date according to the Gregorian calendar changes. In 2019 it falls on 16 July.\n\nAncient Hindu texts claim that every human is born with three debts, or tri rin, they must pay in their lifetime. These three debts are Deva rin, Pitri rin, and Guru rin, respectively debt to the gods, debt to ancestors, and debt to sages or gurus (who in ancient days were regarded as teachers). The religious texts also prescribe methods of repaying these debts, which ultimately leads us to the path of salvation or moksha. By fasting, praying, and performing rituals to gods and goddesses, one can pay back the Deva rin. The Pitri rin, the debts to our ancestors, are repaid through unconditional love, nurture, support, and respecting our parents, taking care of them in their old age, and performing rituals for their salvation after they pass on. This is the reason most people in Nepal still live in joint families: the responsibility to take care of their parents in their old age weighs heavily. \n\nThe third debt, Guru rin, the debt to teachers, is the topic of this article. In ancient times schools as we know them today were non-existent; education was instead conducted at gurukuls (the gurus’ residence) through the Guru-shishya (teacher–student) relationship utilizing the shruti-smriti (listening and remembering) technique. In this system, the students, or shishya, resided with the teacher in the same premises, learned from him, and helped him in his day-to-day life, including carrying out mundane chores like cleaning, washing clothes, cooking, and so on.\n\nGuru Purnima, which literally translates as the day for the teachers, is a unique festival celebrated in South Asia on full moon. The full moon, the time when our natural satellite emanates its most vibrant and luminescent energies, has special significance. This unique festival is not only linked with teachers but also the social obligations we each should perform in our lifetimes. Since the festival is celebrated according to the lunar calendar, the date according to the Gregorian calendar changes. In 2019 it falls on 16 July.\n\nAncient Hindu texts claim that every human is born with three debts, or tri rin, they must pay in their lifetime. These three debts are Deva rin, Pitri rin, and Guru rin, respectively debt to the gods, debt to ancestors, and debt to sages or gurus (who in ancient days were regarded as teachers). The religious texts also prescribe methods of repaying these debts, which ultimately leads us to the path of salvation or moksha. By fasting, praying, and performing rituals to gods and goddesses, one can pay back the Deva rin. The Pitri rin, the debts to our ancestors, are repaid through unconditional love, nurture, support, and respecting our parents, taking care of them in their old age, and performing rituals for their salvation after they pass on. This is the reason most people in Nepal still live in joint families: the responsibility to take care of their parents in their old age weighs heavily. \n\nThe third debt, Guru rin, the debt to teachers, is the topic of this article. In ancient times schools as we know them today were non-existent; education was instead conducted at gurukuls (the gurus’ residence) through the Guru-shishya (teacher–student) relationship utilizing the shruti-smriti (listening and remembering) technique. In this system, the students, or shishya, resided with the teacher in the same premises, learned from him, and helped him in his day-to-day life, including carrying out mundane chores like cleaning, washing clothes, cooking, and so on.\n\nMany students lived together learning good conduct, discipline, respect for each other, good brotherhood, and the ethics of humanity, along with academic education. At that time there were no fee structures for education. At the end of the student’s studies, they made an offering, Guru-dakshina, to the teacher. These offerings were gestures of gratitude, acknowledgment, and respect, made in kind or through special tasks the guru wanted the student to accomplish. \n\nThe special festival of Guru-Purnima was observed to celebrate the teachers and repay the debts to them. In modern times this festival is still celebrated all over Nepal, in ways different than in days of old. Our education systems have changed, and so have our ways of celebrating festivals. What is important is that the reverence, respect, and gratitude for teachers remains. Students from schools and colleges perform dances and talent shows, entertaining the teachers. Sometimes they raise funds to organize refreshments for the teachers, and may offer gifts too. \n\nThis tradition of respecting teachers is not limited to schools and colleges: adults in various professions often visit their teachers, bringing fruit and flowers to honor them on this special day. Teachers are not only those who teach us in academic institutions: those who implant in us knowledge of various types are also regarded as teachers. It is a day when teachers are made to feel special and motivated. Such socio-cultural festivals decorate our culture and motivate us to be better human beings; their continued observance, even in today’s societies with their twists of modernity, is most vital.\n\nPhoto 1 : GuruPurnima CelebrationⓒKailash K Shrestha, Artudio\nPhoto 2 : GuruPurnima CelebrationⓒKailash K Shrestha, Artudio