Old Polish sabre fencing fits within the limits of broadly understood Polish martial art, which in addition to sabre fencing includes fighting on war horses with a hussar lance, pickax (horseman’s pick), scythe, or Polish lance. The basis for the claim that Poland has its own sabre fencing pattern is the fact that it developed its own type of sabre pattern called the hussar sabre (Kwaśniewicz, 1988, p. 66) and the existence of Old Polish fencing with palcaty (short sticks) (Kwaśniewicz, 2017, p. 473)—an important element in the preparation of noblemen and courtiers for fencing with this weapon known as “cross art” (Jezierski, 1791, p. 213), and in the case of short sticks, “striking the clubs ( )” (Kitowicz, 1985, p. 113). This had its origins in the 16th century and its tradition was cultivated until 1939. It was resurrected as a Polish martial art in 1986 under the name Signum Polonicum, functioning as a contribution of Polish national heritage to the world family of national sports and martial arts.

This presentation basically focuses on two themes: (1) the meaning of loss and risk in the context of cultural dynamics and (2) the possible articulation between cultural safeguarding and social development projects. I argue that the loss or abandonment of ICH elements by cultural communities does not simply point out at the impoverishment of cultural repertories, but often makes manifest social conflicts and changes which may sometimes be desired by some social agents, yet seen as undesirable by others within the same social formation. Furthermore, I believe that the safeguarding of ICH, particularly endangered social practices and traditional knowledge, can be a crucial component of social development programmes, above all in relation to education, in raising family income, as well as in strengthening senses of identity and selfesteem of minority groups.

2003 UNESCO 무형문화유산보호협약(The Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage)에 의하면, ‘무형문화유산’이라 함은 개인, 집단 및 공동체들이 그들의 문화유산의 일부분으로 인식하는 실행, 표출, 표현, 지식 및 기술뿐 아니라 이와 관련된 전달 도구, 사물, 유물 및 문화 공간 모두를 의미한다. 나아가 무형문화유산의 범위와 관련하여 동협약은 ①무형문화유산의 전달수단으로서의 언어를 포함한 구전 전통 및 표현, ②공연 예술, ③사회적 관습·의식 및 제전, ④자연과 우주에 대한 지식 및 관행, ⑤전통공예기술을 예시적으로 나열하고 있다.\n\n이러한, 무형문화유산은 세대를 거쳐 사용·경험에 의하여 전승되어 온 ‘정보’로써, 사용되는 과정에서 개량(innovation)이 추가된다. 이러한 개량은 무형문화유산의 본질을 변화시키지 않는 범위 내에서 그 가치를 증가시키는 행위이고, 전통이라고 하는 본질은 계속 유지된다.4) 따라서 무형문화유산은 전통성과 동시에 날마다 생성된다고 하는 현대성을 갖는다. 이러한 무형문화유산의 특성은 무형문화유산의 지적재산권제도에 의한 보호를 곤란하게 하는 요인이다. 또한 이러한 유산의 대부분은 공유(公有, public domain)에 해당할 것이다.5) 기존 유산을 개량하는 경우, 개량된 부분은 사적영역(private domain)이 되기도 하지만 다시 관행을 통하여 공유가 된다. 무형문화유산은 전통지식(Traditional Knowledge), 전통문화표현물(TCEs/EoF; Traditional Cultural Expressions/Expression of Folklore)과 마찬가지로 인류의 공동유산(common heritage)으로 취급되어 그 “보전”에 초점이 맞추어져 왔다.\n\n전통지식(Traditional Knowledge)은 광의로 사용되는 경우와 협의로 사용되는 경우가 있다. 협의의 전통지식이란 “자연과 밀접한 관계가 있는 것 중에서 집단에 의하여 세대를 거쳐 배양된 농업적 지식, 과학적 지식, 기술적 지식, 생태학적 지식, 의학적 지식 및 생물다양성에 관한 지식의 총체”를 말하며 기술적 측면이 강하다. 현재 WIPO에서는 전통문화표현물의 개념을 포함하는 “광의의 전통지식”의 보호에 대하여 논의되고 있다. 특히, 유전자원과 밀접한 관계가 있는 “협의의 전통지식”은 특허와 관련하여 논의되고 있다. 광의의 전통지식이란 협의의 전통지식에 전통문화표현물의 표현, 언어적 요소(지리적 표시), 심볼, 동산문화재(미술공예품·민속자료·역사적 자료) 등을 추가한 것을 말한다.8) 한편, 최광의 개념으로 사용되는 유산(heritage)은 “광의의 전통지식” 뿐만 아니라 인간의 유전자정보, 성지와 유적·사적지 등과 같은 문화재, 선주민의 생활을 기록한 사진 영화 등을 포함하는 매우 넓은 개념이다. 본래 인류의 공동유산은 자유로이 접근, 이용할 수 있는 것으로 취급되어 왔으나, 최근 선진국가의 기업이 풍부한 경험, 정보 및 자금력을 바탕으로 인류의 공동유산을 소재로 하여 연구개발을 행하고 있으며, 그 연구성과를 지적재산권화하는 사례가 발생하고 있다.

Based on the accumulated experience over the course of fifteen years since the adoption of the 2003 Convention, Southeast Asia is well known for its diverse and abundant intangible heritage. Many states in this region have already initiated ICH safeguarding plans with active participation of communities.\nHowever, a number of Member States are still having difficulties employing community‐based safeguarding plan and programs. In implementing the 2003 Convention, much attention should be paid to build capacity to support and safeguard a wider range of ICH Stakeholders, including communities, group, and individuals.\nTherefore, this session will provide an opportunity to share experiences and discuss on the roles the community should exercise in safeguarding ICH. In this session, we will discuss the following questions: (1) Do ICH communities, groups, individuals, and practitioners fully recognise the spirit and significance of the 2003 Convention? (2) Are they subsequently assigned to embody appropriate roles?

Afrikan combat arts and sciences are the very oldest in the world as Afrikan people are the first human beings in the world. According to Hamblin, “the oldest discovered cemetery in the Nile Valley at Jebel Sahaba in Nubia (northern Sudan)—broadly dated to roughly 12,000– 9000—provides the earliest evidence of tribal warfare, for roughly half of the 59 skeletons at site 117 had flint projectile points among the bones, probably indicating death in battle; some had evidence of multiple healed wounds, perhaps indicating repeated fighting” (2006, p. 32). This site has since been more accurately dated to between 13,140 and 14,340 years ago (Graham, 2016). At another massacre site at Nataruk in contemporary Kenya were found a mixture of people killed with blunt instruments, sharp pointed weapons, projectiles, and so on. According to Lahr , “Ten of the twelve articulated skeletons found at Nataruk show evidence of having died violently at the edge of a lagoon, into which some of the bodies fell. The remains from Nataruk are unique, preserved by the particular conditions of the lagoon with no evidence of deliberate burial” (2016, p. 2). Researchers at Nataruk also found:

Pencak Silat is an intangible cultural heritage that allows a community to express its culture and, more importantly, is a vehicle that allows practitioners to manifest the best values passed to them by their teachers for the benefit of all in society. It is practiced in countries in Southeast Asia, including Singapore, Malaysia, and Indonesia. However, not much research has been done on the history and culture of Pencak Silat in Singapore. The project entitled “Preserving Intangible Cultural Heritage: Documenting and Recording the History, Culture and Memory of Malay Martial Arts Groups in Singapore,” led by Dr. Mohamed Effendy from the Department of Southeast Asian Studies, National University of Singapore, and sponsored by the National Heritage Board of Singapore, is therefore a timely one. It aims to safeguard the history and culture of Malay martial groups of Singapore by documenting and recording their past and cultural activities. Thus, the project provides the inspiration and backdrop for this paper, which will describe how Pencak Silat connects communities in Singapore to their historical origins. The paper will also analyze how Pencak Silat has contributed to the social and cultural success of the Singapore Malay community today, and lastly, it will examine to what extent Pencak Silat values can be used to further enhance the development of a community.

I arrived in Hue City by the Perfume River (Sông Hương) on a rainy afternoon in September 2019 to spend about a month gathering materials and data related to the preservation of the Hue Imperial Complex. One of my friends was waiting for me at a local bar together with his Bach Ho (White Tiger) master, a man in his sixties wearing a black martial arts shirt. After greeting one another, we began our conversation by taking about Hue’s recent conservation projects and local landscapes, before my friend’s master touched upon the history and the heyday of Bach Ho martial arts (the 1960s to the early 2000s). Indeed, Vietnamese people have created their own martial arts to boost their health and protect their homeland against aggressive and more powerful foreign invaders for a few thousand years. As Van Dung highlight: “martial arts contributed glorious pages to the history, appeared as a proof for resolute spirit, inexhaustible struggle, fearless of death, difficulty or danger and as a creative mind of people” (2017, p. 27). The Vietnamese philosophy of martial arts is “the Truth—the Goodness—the Beauty”; it attempts to advance Vietnamese culture and characters by forging a sturdy body, enduring health, and a strong spirit that provides support in dealing with difficulties and hardship (Van Dung ., 2017, p. 28). Viet Nam has some of its own styles of martial arts, but due to being located at a crossroads of civilizations, various martial arts from China, Korea, and Japan have been brought into and mixed with native ones, including kung fu, karate, judo, aikido, and taekwondo (Van Dung , 2016, p. 69). With the tremendous growth of this industry, martial arts have become an integral part of sports and physical activity culture, conveying not only lifestyles but also educational value and entertainment (Ko ., 2010, p. 3).\nHue became one of the biggest centers of martial arts in Viet Nam because it was home to the Nguyen dynasty, the final feudal society of Viet Nam (1802–45). The Nguyen dynasty fought against local rivals and also stood against Western colonialism, particularly the French invasion (Odell and Castillo, 2008, p. 82). Therefore, the practice of martial arts was very much encouraged and was stimulated through the organization of a number of nationwide martial arts competitions to select the best talents in the country (Le, 2020). Several temples were constructed, at which the masters’ skills and teaching were honored by the carving of their names on the stone columns.\nThe Hue Association of Traditional Martial Arts confirms that there are around 15 types of martial art within Hue, including Viet Vo dao, Bach Ho, Nga My, Thien Muc Son, Thieu Bao, Nam Son, Hau Quyen dao, Thieu Lam Dai Tam, and Kinh Van An. Other Vietnamese martial arts had their origins elsewhere, as noted, in countries such as China, Japan, and Korea, but Bach Ho (a genuine Vietnamese martial art) remained one of the most prevalent types of martial art in Hue City. Unfortunately, the stature of Bach Ho is fading significantly in comparison with other martial arts. This study thus aims to explore the relevance of Bach Ho in contemporary contexts and the primary impediments to its transmission. It will then propose recommendations for safeguarding and promoting Bach Ho as intangible cultural heritage for future generations. These are the primary objectives behind the selection of Bach Ho as our research topic.\nTo conduct our study, we worked closely with representatives from the Association of Traditional Martial Arts of Thua Thien Hue and different groups from the martial arts. In

Capoeira , a Brazilian martial art (MA) expression, was in 2014 inscribed on the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) of Humanity for its fundamental values and characteristics, transmitted from one generation to another (Vianna, 2016; UNESCO, 2020). The is a circle formed by capoeiristas, musicians, and the audience, in the center of which capoeira matches take place.

Karate is commonly regarded as a traditional Japanese martial art, which was developed on the island of Okinawa. Okinawa belonged to the Ryūkyū Kingdom (1429–1879)—an independent state that held diplomatic, cultural, and economic relations with Japan, China, Korea, and other Asian countries. The Ryūkyū Kingdom had a highly transactional culture with a history of cultural exchange in East and Southeast Asia. Karate, generally known as / (hand) or / (China-hand), blended the indigenous fighting systems of Okinawa with influences from Chinese and most likely other Asian martial arts, worldviews, and folk spiritualities into a cultural practice that became rooted in Okinawan society. Today, karate is a weaponless martial art in which punches and kicks are utilized. Due to its history and social as well as cultural relevance, the prefectural government of Okinawa has, since the 1990s, been actively seeking to inscribe Okinawa karate on the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) of Humanity. However, karate will also make its debut as an exhibition sport at the rescheduled Olympic Games due to be held in Tokyo in 2021. According to the World Karate Federation (WKF), about 100 million people practice karate around the world (WKF, 2014). With a transcendence that goes far beyond its sportive side, karate, as a cultural icon both of modernity and “tradition,” has become a Japanese cultural export incorporated into the global sporting culture.

Kalaripayat is considered one of the earlier martial art systems in Asia. Even though it had a larger geographic range at the time of its origin in South India, it is now restricted to the state of Kerala.Many terms are used in the literature to refer to Kalari including “Kalarippayattu,” “Kalaripayattu,” “Kalaripayat,” and so on. The term “Kalaripayat” will be used in this chapter. There are different theories regarding the origin of the word kalari. It is variously said to originate from the Sanskrit word khaloorika (“training ground”), the Tamil word kalam (“storage place for paddy”), or the Malayalam word kalari (“place where Kalaripayat is practiced”). Payatt or Payat may have originated from the Tamil word payil (“to become trained, accustomed, practice”) or the Malayalam words payiluka (“to learn, speak”), payttuka (“to exercise in arms, practice”), or payattu (“fencing exercise, a trick”). It may be noted that the original name of the martial style was “Payattu Kalari” and that the word “Kalaripayat” has only been used since the 20th century.

As in other countries in Spanish-speaking Latin America (Ryan, 2011), and former Spanish colonies such as the Philippines (Gonzales, 2015), there are both longstanding indigenous fighting systems as well as more recently created warrior arts and combat sports in what is now known as Mexico. Since the early 1990s, there has been inception and steady dissemination of several invented martial arts developed in the central, Gulf, and northern regions of Mexico by Mexican martial arts veterans with decades of experience in combat sports and Asian martial arts. New martial arts are often created by experienced martial artists experiencing personal troubles within broader social crises (Jennings, 2019). In the case of the Mexican pioneers, their combative experience is aided by their research into native forms of fighting and their vision to create a unique martial

Vernacular martial arts (VMA) occupy a special niche within the diverse phenomena classified as martial arts. Cross-culturally, “Martial arts can be defined as systematic bodies of knowledge, belief, and practice that are associated with methods of attack and defense against … adversaries” (Green and Svinth, 2010, p. 331). On close examination, we learn that the behaviors we attempt to gather under this umbrella term are quite diverse, ranging from life-and-death struggles through rule-governed sporting contests to expressive forms, from globalized combat sports to localized martial culture. The systems that fall on the latter end of this spectrum I have applied the VMA label to, and among the various martial expressions these are the ones that most clearly qualify as intangible cultural heritage (ICH). The following distinctions are useful for the current discussion.